Pregnancy & Children

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    Last Updated: August 16, 2022

    Childhood developmental stages include the infant (birth to 3 years), preschool (3 to 6 years), and school-age (6 to 12 years) stages. The average length of a pregnancy is 40 weeks, which is further split up into three trimesters. During both pregnancy and childhood, adequate nutrition is crucial for optimal growth and development.

    What are the most common health issues involved with pregnancy and children?

    Pregnant individuals frequently struggle with anemia, blood sugar dysregulation, depression, nausea/vomiting, high-blood-pressure, increased urinary frequency, shortness of breath, heartburn, and hair loss. Children sometimes struggle with (ADHD), autism-spectrum-disorder, asthma, eczema, digestive problems, and ear infections.

    How could diet affect pregnancy and children?

    During pregnancy, consuming enough calories, protein, essential fatty acids (e.g., omega-3s), folic-acid, iodine, vitamin-d, calcium, and iron is crucial for maintaining the health of both parent and child. After birth, it is recommended that infants solely consume breast milk or formula for at least 6 months, at which point solid foods can slowly be introduced. As children grow, it is recommended that they be exposed to foods such as whole grains, fruit-and-vegetable, dairy, lean meat, and fish to ensure that a healthful dietary pattern is established.[1] Thus, getting individualized nutritional counseling from a qualified healthcare provider is beneficial.

    Which supplements are of most interest for pregnancy and children?

    Pregnant individuals are usually prescribed a prenatal supplement to prevent any developmental complications. These often include nutrients such as folic-acid, iodine, iron, vitamin-d, and omega-3 fatty acids. Children usually do not need dietary supplements, as they can get adequate nutrition from their diet.[1] Dietary supplements may be needed if a restrictive diet (e.g., vegan diet, vegetarian diet, gaps-diet, SCD, and AIP, is followed because it can increase the risk for nutritional deficiencies. Additionally, there is evidence that fish oil can be helpful for reducing symptoms of ADHD in children.

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    Frequently asked questions

    What are the most common health issues involved with pregnancy and children?

    Pregnant individuals frequently struggle with anemia, blood sugar dysregulation, depression, nausea/vomiting, high-blood-pressure, increased urinary frequency, shortness of breath, heartburn, and hair loss. Children sometimes struggle with (ADHD), autism-spectrum-disorder, asthma, eczema, digestive problems, and ear infections.

    What are some risk factors for preeclampsia?

    Preeclampsia in a previous pregnancy is the biggest risk factor for developing preeclampsia.[2] Use of assisted reproduction technology (e.g., in vitro fertilization) is also a risk factor; however, this may be confounded by advanced maternal age because older parents are more likely to use assisted reproduction technology. Some additional risk factors for preeclampsia are similar to the risk factors for cardiovascular disease, such as pregestational diabetes, high blood pressure, and a BMI over 30.

    What are the signs of pregnancy?

    The signs of pregnancy are broken up into three categories: presumptive, probable, and positive signs.

    • Presumptive signs, which means that an individual is possibly pregnant, include amenorrhea (absence of menses) nausea/vomiting, fatigue, increased urinary frequency, and breast changes.

    • Probable signs, which means that an individual is more than likely pregnant, include abdominal enlargement, Braxton-Hicks contractions (also known as false labor), cervical changes, and a positive urine pregnancy test.

    • Positive signs, which confirm pregnancy, include detection of a fetal heartbeat, fetal movement felt by a healthcare provider, and visualization of the fetus through ultrasound imaging.

    How could diet affect pregnancy and children?

    During pregnancy, consuming enough calories, protein, essential fatty acids (e.g., omega-3s), folic-acid, iodine, vitamin-d, calcium, and iron is crucial for maintaining the health of both parent and child. After birth, it is recommended that infants solely consume breast milk or formula for at least 6 months, at which point solid foods can slowly be introduced. As children grow, it is recommended that they be exposed to foods such as whole grains, fruit-and-vegetable, dairy, lean meat, and fish to ensure that a healthful dietary pattern is established.[1] Thus, getting individualized nutritional counseling from a qualified healthcare provider is beneficial.

    Can changes in dietary sodium and potassium affect blood pressure in pregnant women?

    Yes. Dietary sodium and potassium intake can modulate blood pressure, even in pregnant individuals. In one study,[11] blood pressure was highest among women with high sodium intake and low potassium intake and lowest among women with low sodium intake and high potassium intake. Additionally, in another study, pregnant women who experienced preeclampsia had lower levels of serum potassium.[12]

    Which supplements are of most interest for pregnancy and children?

    Pregnant individuals are usually prescribed a prenatal supplement to prevent any developmental complications. These often include nutrients such as folic-acid, iodine, iron, vitamin-d, and omega-3 fatty acids. Children usually do not need dietary supplements, as they can get adequate nutrition from their diet.[1] Dietary supplements may be needed if a restrictive diet (e.g., vegan diet, vegetarian diet, gaps-diet, SCD, and AIP, is followed because it can increase the risk for nutritional deficiencies. Additionally, there is evidence that fish oil can be helpful for reducing symptoms of ADHD in children.

    Why is vitamin D often lower in pregnant individuals?

    The exact reasons are not known, but it is likely to be the result of several processes. The leading explanations are hemodilution[3] due to the increase in blood volume during pregnancy, decreased exposure to the sun, and the fetal demand for vitamin D, because it is an essential nutrient.

    Why are omega-3 fats important to take in the third trimester?

    Omega-3 fats are particularly important from the third trimester through the first 18 months of life for development of the brain, retina, and central nervous system. During this time period, the developing fetus accumulates 50 to 70 milligrams of DHA per day,[4] and this process continues to occur through 18 months of age.[5] This is why most studies initiate supplementation during the third trimester. It is generally recommended that fish oil fats are supplemented from the onset of pregnancy,[6] so there’s no need to omit supplementation outside of the third trimester.

    How does ginger work to alleviate nausea?

    Ginger has long been used as a natural folk remedy for nausea and vomiting in pregnancy, but its exact mechanism of action remains unclear. It has been hypothesized that bioactive compounds in ginger[7] potentially ameliorate nausea and vomiting by acting as an antagonist to 5-HT3 receptors that are involved in the process of transmitting signals to the brain via the vagus nerve, which can cause nausea. Another theory is that ginger affects and promotes gastrointestinal motility, which could reduce nausea by preventing acid reflux and vomiting. These ideas are summarized in Figure 3. Other ideas include ginger’s antioxidants or anti-inflammatory effects, ginger effects on signals within the vestibular system, or ginger’s reduction of vasopressin, which consequently reduces nausea and vomiting. Again, studies in humans have varied widely in methodology, and the mechanism of action remains undetermined.

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    How does vitamin B6 work to alleviate nausea?

    The mechanism for how vitamin B6 alleviates nausea is also largely unknown,[8] although it has been suspected since the 1940s that B6 functions as an antiemetic.[9][9] Currently, vitamin B6 is considered a viable treatment for nausea and vomiting in pregnancy, and it is sometimes combined[10] with the drug doxylamine.

    References

    1. ^Corkins MR, Daniels SR, de Ferranti SD, Golden NH, Kim JH, Magge SN, Schwarzenberg SJNutrition in Children and Adolescents.Med Clin North Am.(2016-Nov)
    2. ^Bartsch E, Medcalf KE, Park AL, Ray JG, High Risk of Pre-eclampsia Identification GroupClinical risk factors for pre-eclampsia determined in early pregnancy: systematic review and meta-analysis of large cohort studiesBMJ.(2016 Apr 19)
    3. ^Kaibara M, Marumoto Y, Kobayashi THemodilution and anemia in pregnancy and fetal developmentNihon Sanka Fujinka Gakkai Zasshi.(1984 Oct)
    4. ^Clandinin MT, Chappell JE, Heim T, Swyer PR, Chance GWFatty acid utilization in perinatal de novo synthesis of tissuesEarly Hum Dev.(1981 Sep)
    5. ^Denomme J, Stark KD, Holub BJDirectly quantitated dietary (n-3) fatty acid intakes of pregnant Canadian women are lower than current dietary recommendationsJ Nutr.(2005 Feb)
    6. ^Greenberg JA, Bell SJ, Ausdal WVOmega-3 Fatty Acid supplementation during pregnancyRev Obstet Gynecol.(2008 Fall)
    7. ^Marx W, Ried K, McCarthy AL, Vitetta L, Sali A, McKavanagh D, Isenring LGinger-Mechanism of action in chemotherapy-induced nausea and vomiting: A reviewCrit Rev Food Sci Nutr.(2017 Jan 2)
    8. ^Matok I, Clark S, Caritis S, Miodovnik M, Umans JG, Hankins G, Mattison DR, Koren GStudying the antiemetic effect of vitamin B6 for morning sickness: pyridoxine and pyridoxal are prodrugsJ Clin Pharmacol.(2014 Dec)
    9. ^ROSS JWThe vomiting of pregnancy and its managementJ Natl Med Assoc.(1948 Sep)
    10. ^Nuangchamnong N, Niebyl JDoxylamine succinate-pyridoxine hydrochloride (Diclegis) for the management of nausea and vomiting in pregnancy: an overviewInt J Womens Health.(2014 Apr 12)
    11. ^Yılmaz ZV, Akkaş E, Türkmen GG, Kara Ö, Yücel A, Uygur DDietary sodium and potassium intake were associated with hypertension, kidney damage and adverse perinatal outcome in pregnant women with preeclampsiaHypertens Pregnancy.(2017 Feb)
    12. ^Serum sodium and potassium levels in preeclampsia: A case-control study in a large tertiary hospital in Ghana
    13. ^Yan J, Jiang X, West AA, Perry CA, Malysheva OV, Devapatla S, Pressman E, Vermeylen F, Stabler SP, Allen RH, Caudill MAMaternal choline intake modulates maternal and fetal biomarkers of choline metabolism in humansAm J Clin Nutr.(2012 Mar 14)
    14. ^da Rocha CM, Kac GHigh dietary ratio of omega-6 to omega-3 polyunsaturated acids during pregnancy and prevalence of post-partum depressionMatern Child Nutr.(2012 Jan)
    15. ^Fernandes FS, Tavares do Carmo MD, Herrera EInfluence of Maternal Diet During Early Pregnancy on the Fatty Acid Profile in the Fetus at Late Pregnancy in RatsLipids.(2012 Feb 26)
    16. ^Noakes PS, Vlachava M, Kremmyda LS, Diaper ND, Miles EA, Erlewyn-Lajeunesse M, Williams AP, Godfrey KM, Calder PCIncreased intake of oily fish in pregnancy: effects on neonatal immune responses and on clinical outcomes in infants at 6 moAm J Clin Nutr.(2012 Feb)
    17. ^Dunlop AL, Taylor RN, Tangpricha V, Fortunato S, Menon RMaternal vitamin D, folate, and polyunsaturated fatty acid status and bacterial vaginosis during pregnancyInfect Dis Obstet Gynecol.(2011)
    18. ^Jones KLThe effects of alcohol on fetal developmentBirth Defects Res C Embryo Today.(2011 Mar)
    19. ^Giles JJ, Bannigan JGTeratogenic and developmental effects of lithiumCurr Pharm Des.(2006)
    20. ^Yacobi S, Ornoy AIs lithium a real teratogen? What can we conclude from the prospective versus retrospective studies? A reviewIsr J Psychiatry Relat Sci.(2008)