While no single cause of PPD has been determined, many risk factors have been identified. A 2023 meta-analysis found the following as major risk factors: a personal history of mental illness, childcare stress, the baby’s temperament (e.g., infantile colic, inconsolable crying), stressful life events, inadequate social support, the maternity blues, and conflict or dissatisfaction with one’s partner.[1] Low socioeconomic status, abuse, gestational diabetes, vitamin D deficiency, and pregnancy or delivery complications have also been identified as risk factors for PPD.[2][3] Additionally, a 2013 Canadian study found that women who lived in cities of over 500,000 people were at higher risk of postpartum depression, possibly due to lack of social support.[4] Neuroendocrinological factors, genetic predisposition and family history may also be at play.[5] Exclusive breastfeeding is associated with a lower risk of PPD,[6] although it’s unclear whether this is a cause or effect.
References
- ^Al-Abri K, Edge D, Armitage CJPrevalence and correlates of perinatal depression.Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol.(2023-Jan-16)
- ^Alhusen JL, Alvarez CPerinatal depression: A clinical update.Nurse Pract.(2016-May-19)
- ^Iris Agrawal, Ashok M Mehendale, Ritika MalhotraRisk Factors of Postpartum DepressionCureus.(2022 Oct 31)
- ^Simone N Vigod, Lesley A Tarasoff, Barbara Bryja, Cindy-Lee Dennis, Mark H Yudin, Lori E RossRelation between place of residence and postpartum depressionCMAJ.(2013 Sep 17)
- ^Rawashdeh H, Alalwani Z, Sindiani A, Alodetalah R, Alqudah MThe Association between Late Third-Trimester Oxytocin Level and Early-Onset Postpartum Depression Symptoms among Jordanian Mothers: A Cross-sectional Study.Depress Res Treat.(2022)
- ^Alimi R, Azmoude E, Moradi M, Zamani MThe Association of Breastfeeding with a Reduced Risk of Postpartum Depression: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.Breastfeed Med.(2022-Apr)