Some people have an increased risk of PMDD. Certain genes, like the estrogen receptor alpha (ESR1) gene and ESC/E(Z) gene complex, are associated with PMDD and may increase a person’s sensitivity to sex hormone fluctuations. Genetic causes for PMDD are an area of ongoing research.[1][2] Other factors associated with an increased risk of PMDD include: a history of anxiety or of a depressive disorder; having experienced traumatic events; smoking; and lower education status.[3][4]
References
- ^Wei SM, Baller EB, Martinez PE, Goff AC, Li HJ, Kohn PD, Kippenhan JS, Soldin SJ, Rubinow DR, Goldman D, Schmidt PJ, Berman KFSubgenual cingulate resting regional cerebral blood flow in premenstrual dysphoric disorder: differential regulation by ovarian steroids and preliminary evidence for an association with expression of ESC/E(Z) complex genes.Transl Psychiatry.(2021-Apr-08)
- ^Hantsoo L, Payne JLTowards understanding the biology of premenstrual dysphoric disorder: From genes to GABA.Neurosci Biobehav Rev.(2023-Jun)
- ^Perkonigg A, Yonkers KA, Pfister H, Lieb R, Wittchen HURisk factors for premenstrual dysphoric disorder in a community sample of young women: the role of traumatic events and posttraumatic stress disorder.J Clin Psychiatry.(2004-Oct)
- ^Cohen LS, Soares CN, Otto MW, Sweeney BH, Liberman RF, Harlow BLPrevalence and predictors of premenstrual dysphoric disorder (PMDD) in older premenopausal women. The Harvard Study of Moods and Cycles.J Affect Disord.(2002-Jul)