Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a behavioral condition marked by severe inattention, impulsivity, and hyperactivity that disrupts social, academic, or workplace functioning. It has 3 subtypes — inattentive, hyperactive-impulsive, and combined — based on predominant symptoms, and symptom clusters may change as individuals mature.
What is ADHD?
Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a behavioral condition characterized by inattention, impulsivity, and hyperactivity. Most people experience these behaviors from time to time, but in ADHD, they are more severe, happen more often, and interfere with a person’s ability to function socially, at school, or in the workplace.[1] ADHD is divided into three subtypes by predominant symptomatology: Inattentive (ADHD-I), Hyperactive-Impulsive (ADHD-HI), and Combined (ADHD-C). Symptom clusters can change as individuals mature and develop.[2]
What are the main signs and symptoms of ADHD?
People with ADHD can show signs of inattention, hyperactivity, impulsivity, or both.[3] This can manifest as difficulty paying attention to details, getting sidetracked from schoolwork, troubles with organization, and being easily distracted. Other behaviors include fidgeting or squirming, inability to remain seated when expected, inappropriate running or climbing, and talking excessively. ADHD in adults is often internalized and may present as restlessness, scattered thoughts, and poor time management.[4]
How is ADHD diagnosed?
In children, at least six of the symptoms mentioned need to be present to qualify for a diagnosis; in adults, only five. In both cases, these symptoms need to be present for more than 6 months and interfere with academic, occupational, or social functioning.[5]
What are some of the main medical treatments for ADHD?
Except in children under age 5, medications are considered the first-line treatment for ADHD.[6][7] Short- and long-acting forms of amphetamines and methylphenidate — stimulants that increase levels of dopamine and norepinephrine in the brain — are most commonly prescribed and considered highly effective for treating ADHD.[8][9]
Other nonstimulant medications used for ADHD include atomoxetine,[10] bupropion,[11] and tricyclic antidepressants.[12]There is some preliminary research suggesting that modafinil may improve ADHD, but much more research is needed.[13]
Have any supplements been studied for ADHD?
Fish oil contains the omega-3 fatty acids DHA (docosahexaenoic acid) and EPA (eicosapentaenoic acid), which have well-supported anti-inflammatory properties and can regulate neurotransmitter and immune function, and as a result, may improve ADHD.[14]
Ginkgo biloba increases blood flow in the human brain and the signaling of serotonin and norepinephrine in rats, which may contribute to its mild, positive effect on ADHD.[15][16]
Both L-carnitine and acetyl-L-carnitine are present in brain cells and play an important role in energy production — it’s possible that by increasing mitochondrial activity in neurons and promoting dopamine signaling, carnitine could improve symptoms of ADHD.[17]
Supplementing with phosphatidylserine (a phosphorus-containing lipid) seems to positively affect ADHD,[18] which is likely due to its important role in adjusting receptor, enzyme, and ion channel activity, and consequently, affecting the signaling of most neurotransmitters in the brain.
How could diet affect ADHD?
A number of dietary interventions for ADHD have been studied, including the elimination of artificial food colorings, diets high in polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), and the few-foods diet (a type of elimination diet that gradually reintroduces foods based on how a person’s symptoms change).[19] High-PUFA diets aren’t likely to improve ADHD symptoms, but the few-foods diet is promising. More research on dietary artificial food coloring intake is necessary before it can be recommended for treating ADHD.
Are there any other treatments for ADHD?
Behavioral strategies can be used to manage ADHD symptoms, and include:[20]
- Keeping a consistent schedule
- Minimizing external distractions
- Setting small, reachable goals
- Identifying unintentional reinforcement of negative behaviors
- Using charts and checklists
- Limiting choices
- Using calm discipline in children (e.g., time out)
Psychotherapy and cognitive behavioral therapy can be helpful for children and adults with ADHD, although it’s not recommended as a substitute for medication.[21]
What causes ADHD?
The exact etiology of ADHD is unknown but is thought to involve structural and neurochemical alterations in brain regions responsible for executive function, memory, and information processing.[22][23] Norepinephrine and dopamine signaling play a major role in the function of these brain regions, and individuals with ADHD tend to have lower levels of both of these neurotransmitters than individuals without ADHD.[22]
ADHD has a strong genetic component. The risk of ADHD is increased by 2–8 times in individuals who have a parent or sibling with ADHD, and pooled twin studies suggest that the heritability of ADHD is nearly 80%.[24]
Examine Database: Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)
Research FeedRead all studies
Qigong for children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder?
In this 3-month randomized controlled trial, qigong did not reduce hyperactivity/impulsivity scores compared to routine aerobic exercise in 120 children (101 boys, 19 girls; average age of 8) with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder.
Does lemon verbena help with ADHD symptoms?
Is internet-based cognitive behavioral therapy helpful for adults on medication for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder?
Can probiotics help with mood issues in autism and ADHD?
Can a school-based mindfulness intervention improve ADHD symptoms?
Frequently asked questions
What is ADHD?
Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a behavioral condition characterized by inattention, impulsivity, and hyperactivity. Most people experience these behaviors from time to time, but in ADHD, they are more severe, happen more often, and interfere with a person’s ability to function socially, at school, or in the workplace.[1] ADHD is divided into three subtypes by predominant symptomatology: Inattentive (ADHD-I), Hyperactive-Impulsive (ADHD-HI), and Combined (ADHD-C). Symptom clusters can change as individuals mature and develop.[2]
Are ADHD and autism connected?
Quick answer:
ADHD and autism are distinct disorders characterized by different symptoms, but they often co-occur and share some similarities, particularly in brain regions associated with executive dysfunction. Both conditions involve challenges with cognitive processes, emotions, and self-control, which suggests potential underlying connections.
ADHD involves inattention, impulsivity, and hyperactivity, whereas autism is characterized by stereotyped behavior and impaired social and communication skills. On the surface, there seems to be little in common between these two disorders at first glance.
One feature they do have in common is that they rarely present alone. In the words of two researchers:[25] “It is the exception, not the rule, to encounter cases with ‘pure’ ADHD”, and the same also seems to hold true for ASD. It’s not uncommon for attention issues and full-blown ADHD to be found[26] in children with ASD. The reason aspects of these conditions can overlap may come down to where they occur in the brain. Both involve some of the same regions of the brain, in what is known as the frontostriatal system. Disorders that arise from this region are thus known as frontostriatal disorders,[27] which include ADHD and ASD. Recent neuropsychological evidence[28] suggests that ADHD and ASD share some similar brain circuits and both involve problems with managing cognitive processes and emotions, self-control, and executing complex tasks (collectively known as executive dysfunction), implying that both disorders may have some underlying similarities.
What are the main signs and symptoms of ADHD?
ADHD symptoms include inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity, which can manifest as difficulty focusing, disorganization, and distractibility. In adults, symptoms may be more internalized and appear as restlessness, scattered thoughts, and poor time management.
People with ADHD can show signs of inattention, hyperactivity, impulsivity, or both.[3] This can manifest as difficulty paying attention to details, getting sidetracked from schoolwork, troubles with organization, and being easily distracted. Other behaviors include fidgeting or squirming, inability to remain seated when expected, inappropriate running or climbing, and talking excessively. ADHD in adults is often internalized and may present as restlessness, scattered thoughts, and poor time management.[4]
How is ADHD diagnosed?
ADHD is diagnosed in children when at least 6 symptoms are present, whereas adult diagnosis requires 5 symptoms. These symptoms must persist for over 6 months and disrupt academic, occupational, or social functioning.
In children, at least six of the symptoms mentioned need to be present to qualify for a diagnosis; in adults, only five. In both cases, these symptoms need to be present for more than 6 months and interfere with academic, occupational, or social functioning.[5]
Can adults have ADHD?
Quick answer:
Adults can have ADHD, with symptoms that may persist from childhood and affect daily functioning, and often the individual does not realize that they have the condition. The prevalence of persistent adult ADHD is approximately 2.5%, the prevalence of symptomatic adult ADHD is approximately 6.7%, and symptoms may differ from those seen in children, including challenges with task prioritization, planning, time management, and emotional regulation.
While symptoms of ADHD often begin early in childhood, adults can continue to have symptoms of ADHD that interfere with their daily functioning, and some adults with ADHD may not even know they have the condition. It is estimated that the prevalence of persistent adult ADHD (with the onset in childhood) is around 2.5% and the prevalence of symptomatic adult ADHD is around 6.7% globally.[29]
The symptoms of ADHD may present differently in adults compared to children. For example, hyperactivity in children may manifest as running, jumping, or making noise while in adults, hyperactivity may take the form of restlessness or scattered thoughts.[4] There are other ADHD symptoms that are more specific to adults including:[30][31]
- Difficulty prioritizing tasks
- Difficulty planning
- Poor time management (e.g., missing or double-booking appointments)
- Difficulty regulating emotions
What are some of the main medical treatments for ADHD?
Medications, particularly short-acting and long-acting forms of amphetamines and methylphenidate, are the first-line treatment for ADHD in individuals over age 5 because they effectively increase dopamine and norepinephrine levels in the brain. Other nonstimulant options include atomoxetine, bupropion, and tricyclic antidepressants, and preliminary research suggests potential benefits of modafinil, though further studies are needed.
Except in children under age 5, medications are considered the first-line treatment for ADHD.[6][7] Short- and long-acting forms of amphetamines and methylphenidate — stimulants that increase levels of dopamine and norepinephrine in the brain — are most commonly prescribed and considered highly effective for treating ADHD.[8][9]
Other nonstimulant medications used for ADHD include atomoxetine,[10] bupropion,[11] and tricyclic antidepressants.[12]There is some preliminary research suggesting that modafinil may improve ADHD, but much more research is needed.[13]
Have any supplements been studied for ADHD?
Several supplements have been studied for ADHD, including fish oil, which may improve symptoms due to its omega-3 fatty acids, and Ginkgo biloba, which may enhance blood flow and neurotransmitter signaling. Additionally, L-carnitine, acetyl-L-carnitine, and phosphatidylserine have shown potential benefits by influencing energy production and neurotransmitter activity in the brain.
Fish oil contains the omega-3 fatty acids DHA (docosahexaenoic acid) and EPA (eicosapentaenoic acid), which have well-supported anti-inflammatory properties and can regulate neurotransmitter and immune function, and as a result, may improve ADHD.[14]
Ginkgo biloba increases blood flow in the human brain and the signaling of serotonin and norepinephrine in rats, which may contribute to its mild, positive effect on ADHD.[15][16]
Both L-carnitine and acetyl-L-carnitine are present in brain cells and play an important role in energy production — it’s possible that by increasing mitochondrial activity in neurons and promoting dopamine signaling, carnitine could improve symptoms of ADHD.[17]
Supplementing with phosphatidylserine (a phosphorus-containing lipid) seems to positively affect ADHD,[18] which is likely due to its important role in adjusting receptor, enzyme, and ion channel activity, and consequently, affecting the signaling of most neurotransmitters in the brain.
How could diet affect ADHD?
Dietary interventions for ADHD include elimination of artificial food colorings, high-PUFA diets, and the few-foods diet, and the latter has shown promise. However, high-PUFA diets are unlikely to improve symptoms, and more research is needed on the effect of artificial food coloring.
A number of dietary interventions for ADHD have been studied, including the elimination of artificial food colorings, diets high in polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), and the few-foods diet (a type of elimination diet that gradually reintroduces foods based on how a person’s symptoms change).[19] High-PUFA diets aren’t likely to improve ADHD symptoms, but the few-foods diet is promising. More research on dietary artificial food coloring intake is necessary before it can be recommended for treating ADHD.
Are there any other treatments for ADHD?
Behavioral strategies for managing ADHD symptoms include maintaining a consistent schedule, minimizing distractions, and using charts and checklists. Additionally, psychotherapy and cognitive behavioral therapy can be beneficial for individuals with ADHD, but they should not replace medication.
Behavioral strategies can be used to manage ADHD symptoms, and include:[20]
- Keeping a consistent schedule
- Minimizing external distractions
- Setting small, reachable goals
- Identifying unintentional reinforcement of negative behaviors
- Using charts and checklists
- Limiting choices
- Using calm discipline in children (e.g., time out)
Psychotherapy and cognitive behavioral therapy can be helpful for children and adults with ADHD, although it’s not recommended as a substitute for medication.[21]
Can exercise help with ADHD?
Quick answer:
Exercise is a highly recommended nonpharmacological treatment for ADHD and benefits both adults and children by promoting dopamine release, improving executive functions, and regulating behavior and attention. Research indicates that exercise can enhance attention in children with ADHD and improve overall symptoms and executive function in people with ADHD.
Exercise is one of the most-recommended nonpharmacological treatments for ADHD in adults and children. Some of the benefits of exercise for ADHD are theoretical, and include promoting dopamine release in the brain, improving executive functions, increasing levels of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), and regulating behavior and attention.[33] Studies have shown that exercise can increase attention in children with ADHD,[34] and improve symptoms of ADHD and executive function in ADHD patients.[35]
What are the effects of cannabis on ADHD?
Quick answer:
Cannabis is often used by adults with ADHD as a form of self-medication, but there is limited clinical research on its effects; some evidence suggests that it may improve inattention symptoms while also posing risks for neurocognitive deficits. Adults with ADHD may be more likely to use cannabis, which highlights the need for further clinical trials to understand its effect on ADHD symptoms.
Cannabis is a common form of self-medication among adults with ADHD, but there is very little clinical research to support claims of either harm or benefit from regular cannabis use. Some data suggest that adults with ADHD may be 2-3 times more likely to use cannabis than adults without ADHD and may also be at an increased risk for cannabis use disorder.
Cannabis may improve symptoms of inattention in ADHD. However, cannabis use is also associated with neurocognitive deficits and reduced memory and executive functions in adults with and without ADHD. Thus, while many adults with ADHD advocate for cannabis’s therapeutic effects, clinical trials are needed to study the direct effects of cannabis use on ADHD symptoms.[36]
What causes ADHD?
The exact cause of ADHD is unknown, but it is believed to involve structural and neurochemical changes in the brain, particularly related to norepinephrine and dopamine signaling. Additionally, ADHD has a strong genetic component, and there is a significantly increased risk among individuals with a family history of the disorder.
The exact etiology of ADHD is unknown but is thought to involve structural and neurochemical alterations in brain regions responsible for executive function, memory, and information processing.[22][23] Norepinephrine and dopamine signaling play a major role in the function of these brain regions, and individuals with ADHD tend to have lower levels of both of these neurotransmitters than individuals without ADHD.[22]
ADHD has a strong genetic component. The risk of ADHD is increased by 2–8 times in individuals who have a parent or sibling with ADHD, and pooled twin studies suggest that the heritability of ADHD is nearly 80%.[24]
Is ADHD an inherited condition?
Quick answer:
ADHD can run in families, and studies indicate that its heritability may be as high as 74%. Having a parent or sibling with ADHD increases an individual's risk by 2 to 8 times.
References
Examine Database References
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- ADHD Symptoms - L Eugene Arnold, Antonino Amato, Hernan Bozzolo, Jill Hollway, Amy Cook, Yaser Ramadan, Lindsay Crowl, Dan Zhang, Susan Thompson, Giussepe Testa, Vernon Kliewer, Timothy Wigal, Keith McBurnett, Michael ManosAcetyl-L-carnitine (ALC) in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a multi-site, placebo-controlled pilot trialJ Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol.(2007 Dec)
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- ADHD Symptoms - Jane Pei-Chen Chang, Kuan-Pin Su, Valeria Mondelli, Senthil Kumaran Satyanarayanan, Hui-Ting Yang, Yi-Ju Chiang, Hui-Ting Chen, Carmine M ParianteHigh-dose eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) improves attention and vigilance in children and adolescents with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and low endogenous EPA levelsTransl Psychiatry.(2019 Nov 20)
- ADHD Symptoms - Richardson AJ, Puri BKA randomized double-blind, placebo-controlled study of the effects of supplementation with highly unsaturated fatty acids on ADHD-related symptoms in children with specific learning difficultiesProg Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry.(2002 Feb)
- ADHD Symptoms - Bos DJ, Oranje B, Veerhoek ES, Van Diepen RM, Weusten JM, Demmelmair H, Koletzko B, de Sain-van der Velden MG, Eilander A, Hoeksma M, Durston SReduced Symptoms of Inattention after Dietary Omega-3 Fatty Acid Supplementation in Boys with and without Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity DisorderNeuropsychopharmacology.(2015 Sep)
- ADHD Symptoms - Voigt RG, Llorente AM, Jensen CL, Fraley JK, Berretta MC, Heird WCA randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of docosahexaenoic acid supplementation in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorderJ Pediatr.(2001 Aug)
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- ADHD Symptoms - Bloch MH, Qawasmi AOmega-3 fatty acid supplementation for the treatment of children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder symptomatology: systematic review and meta-analysisJ Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry.(2011 Oct)
- ADHD Symptoms - Sinn N, Bryan JEffect of supplementation with polyunsaturated fatty acids and micronutrients on learning and behavior problems associated with child ADHDJ Dev Behav Pediatr.(2007 Apr)
- ADHD Symptoms - Bélanger SA, Vanasse M, Spahis S, Sylvestre MP, Lippé S, L'heureux F, Ghadirian P, Vanasse CM, Levy EOmega-3 fatty acid treatment of children with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled studyPaediatr Child Health.(2009 Feb)
- ADHD Symptoms - Alisha Bruton, Joy Nauman, Douglas Hanes, Melissa Gard, Angela SendersPhosphatidylserine for the Treatment of Pediatric Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: A Systematic Review and Meta-AnalysisJ Altern Complement Med.(2021 Feb 4)
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