Cannabis

    Researchedby:
    Kamal Patel
    Last Updated: October 13, 2024

    Cannabis is the common name and genus for a few plants used around the world due to their psychoactive properties. Its major component, known as THC, possesses acute benefits but is subject to rapid tolerance. Additionally, nonpsychoactive components like CBD may have chronic benefits. While therapeutic, particularly for pain relief, the plant is not a panacea.

    Cannabis is most often used for Mental Health. The Examine Database covers Multiple Sclerosis, Cognitive Improvement, and 43 other conditions and goals.

    15,579 participants in 89 trials and 4 meta-analyses

    Summary

    Cannabis is the common name for a few plants in the cannabis genus, including sativa, indica, and ruderalis. It is primarily used for its psychoactive properties around the world. Cannabis has also been traditionally used to treat inflammatory disorders and is increasingly being used in modern medicine.

    Cannabis' primary active chemical, Δ9THC, or delta-9 tetrahydrocannabinol, acts on the cannabinergic system in the body, which is actually named cannabis after the plant. This system is regulated by two receptors, called cannabinoid receptor type 1 (CB1) and cannabinoid receptor type 2 (CB2). CB1 is responsible for most of the psychoactive effects of cannabis, and CB2 is responsible for many of the long-term benefits cannabis may provide for inflammation and related diseases.

    THC and CBD appear to be notable analgesics and can reduce pain in a variety of health conditions. Pain in multiple sclerosis and neuropathic pain, in general, have the best evidence for benefits, and they also appear to be useful in cancer, fibromyalgia, rheumatoid arthritis, and pain from wounds. However, more research on those is needed. There is great interest in using cannabis to reduce opioid use, and while some evidence supports this, more research is needed to determine where it may be most effective. In instances of severe pain, the reduction in pain may not be enough to reduce opioid use.

    Inhaling cannabis smoke increases diastolic blood pressure and heart rate, though this change is temporary. However, many case studies note cannabis usage 30 – 60 minutes before heart attacks, so it's possible that this acute effect could be dangerous for those at high risk. Heart attacks can occur when people with an elevated risk for heart disease push their blood pressure and heart rate to dangerous levels. It may also interact with some pharmaceuticals, which could result in elevated blood pressure and a heart attack. Smoking cannabis has also been associated with bronchitis.

    Cannabis usage over a long period of time can cause tolerance and subsequently withdrawal. Cannabis withdrawal is recognized by the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5). On a molecular level, cannabis tolerance occurs when the CB1 receptor is overstimulated and internalized, meaning absorbed by the cell. The CB1 receptor and the N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor (NMDA) receptor are linked when it comes to cannabis, so when CB1 signaling is inhibited, NMDA signaling is also hampered. This may cause cannabis to be less effective for treating epilepsy and schizophrenia, though it also reduces the memory loss associated with cannabis use. Tolerance does not significantly affect the CB2 receptor, so cannabis may be effective for inflammatory disorders over a longer period of time.

    Note:

    Originally, this page included various studies on isolated THC. We have decided to transition the Examine Database of this page to one that exclusively includes studies on combinations of THC and CBD, either in the form of whole cannabis leaf, cannabis oil, or pharmaceutical combinations of THC and CBD. We have a dedicated CBD page and hope to release a dedicated THC page in the not-too-distant future.

    In one sense, this should provide us a better way to understand the expected effects of different products. On the other hand, because a large amount of clinical research is in isolated and synthetic THC, this page by itself is insufficient, in a sense. Various painful conditions that respond to isolated THC could also benefit the same dose of THC from whole cannabis or a THC/CBD product, as the addition of CBD or the other parts of cannabis will be unlikely to counteract those effects; if anything CBD appears to be a notable analgesic in its own right. So when you're using this page, know that there's a good chance that there is more research on isolated THC or CBD for various outcomes (especially chemotherapy side-effects).

    This page is also incomplete because we have omitted some research that we didn't find to be particularly useful for this page. This included a vast literature on the psychological and cognitive effects of cannabis, largely when taken acutely. It also included various studies on health conditions where there were very few applicable studies, though these will be added next update.

    What are other names for Cannabis

    Note that Cannabis is also known as:
    • Weed
    • Medical Marijuana
    • Marihuana
    • dope
    • ganja
    • hashish
    • Dronabinol (medical THC)
    • Cannabis indica
    • Cannabis sativa
    • Marijuana
    Cannabis should not be confused with:
    • Hemp protein (same plant but this term tends to refer to a food product without THC)

    Dosage information

    Cannabis is usually inhaled to experience its psychoactive effects but can also be taken orally, sublingually (placed and held under the tongue), or via suppository. The route of consumption will dictate how quickly its effects will be felt with inhalation and suppository acting faster than sublingual or oral consumption.

    The benefits and side-effects related to cannabis consumption will typically occur at doses large enough to cause a mild to moderate high. The most common dose range used in clinical trials is 2–5 mg per day (although this dose is typically concentrated THC).

    Most side-effects of cannabis use are associated with frequency, not dosage. Using cannabis more than once a week might result in tolerance. Some people may need to restrict their usage to twice a month to avoid developing a tolerance.

    Do not increase cannabis doses to overcome tolerance unless directed to do so by a medical professional.

    Examine Database: Cannabis

    Multiple Sclerosis
    Cognitive Improvement
    General Cardiovascular Health
    General Cancer Care And Prevention
    Pain Relief
    Fibromyalgia
    Driving Performance
    Metabolic Health
    Neuropathic Pain
    Human Immunodeficiency Virus
    Mood Improvement
    Weight Loss & Maintenance
    Insomnia
    Type 2 Diabetes
    Aerobic Exercise Performance
    Cachexia
    Cancer-Related Pain
    Diabetic Neuropathy
    Marijuana Withdrawal
    Neurological Health
    Respiratory Health
    General Athletic Performance
    Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
    Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease
    Glaucoma
    Low Testosterone
    Menopause
    Burning Mouth Syndrome
    Chemotherapy Side-Effects
    Chronic Pain
    Crohn's Disease
    Eye Health
    Focus & Attention
    Mental Resilience
    Muscle Size & Strength
    Ocular Hypertension
    Opioid-Refractory Pain
    Parkinson's Disease
    Postural Syncope
    Sickle Cell Disease
    Sleep Health
    Smoking Behavior
    Stable Angina
    Tobacco Use Disorder
    Tourette Syndrome

    Research FeedRead all studies

    Research Breakdown

    Examine Database References

    1. Ghrelin - Mehdi Farokhnia, Gray R McDiarmid, Matthew N Newmeyer, Vikas Munjal, Osama A Abulseoud, Marilyn A Huestis, Lorenzo LeggioEffects of oral, smoked, and vaporized cannabis on endocrine pathways related to appetite and metabolism: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, human laboratory studyTransl Psychiatry.(2020 Feb 19)
    2. Cortisol - L E Hollister, F Moore, S Kanter, E Noble1 -tetrahydrocannabinol, synhexyl and marijuana extract administered orally in man: catecholamine excretion, plasma cortisol levels and platelet serotonin contentPsychopharmacologia.(1970)
    3. Prolactin - J H Mendelson, J Ellingboe, N K MelloAcute effects of natural and synthetic cannabis compounds on prolactin levels in human malesPharmacol Biochem Behav.(1984 Jan)
    4. Metabolic Rate - C W Zwillich, R Doekel, S Hammill, J V WeilThe effects of smoked marijuana on metabolism and respiratory controlAm Rev Respir Dis.(1978 Nov)
    5. Ghrelin - Nathalie Weltens, Inge Depoortere, Jan Tack, Lukas Van OudenhoveEffect of acute Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol administration on subjective and metabolic hormone responses to food stimuli and food intake in healthy humans: a randomized, placebo-controlled studyAm J Clin Nutr.(2019 Apr 1)
    6. Appetite - Suzanne E M de Bruijn, Cees de Graaf, Renger F Witkamp, Gerry JagerExplorative Placebo-Controlled Double-Blind Intervention Study with Low Doses of Inhaled Δ9-Tetrahydrocannabinol and Cannabidiol Reveals No Effect on Sweet Taste Intensity Perception and Liking in HumansCannabis Cannabinoid Res.(2017 Jun 1)
    7. Lymphocyte Count - Barry M Bredt, Dana Higuera-Alhino, Starley B Shade, Samuel J Hebert, Joseph M McCune, Donald I AbramsShort-term effects of cannabinoids on immune phenotype and function in HIV-1-infected patientsJ Clin Pharmacol.(2002 Nov)
    8. Leptin - Riggs PK, Vaida F, Rossi SS, Sorkin LS, Gouaux B, Grant I, Ellis RJA pilot study of the effects of cannabis on appetite hormones in HIV-infected adult menBrain Res.(2012 Jan 11)
    9. Analgesic Use - Ronald J Ellis, Will Toperoff, Florin Vaida, Geoffrey van den Brande, James Gonzales, Ben Gouaux, Heather Bentley, J Hampton AtkinsonSmoked medicinal cannabis for neuropathic pain in HIV: a randomized, crossover clinical trialNeuropsychopharmacology.(2009 Feb)
    10. Mood - Timo Woelfl, Cathrin Rohleder, Juliane K Mueller, Bettina Lange, Anne Reuter, Anna Maria Schmidt, Dagmar Koethe, Martin Hellmich, F Markus LewekeEffects of Cannabidiol and Delta-9-Tetrahydrocannabinol on Emotion, Cognition, and Attention: A Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled, Randomized Experimental Trial in Healthy VolunteersFront Psychiatry.(2020 Nov 13)
    11. Mood - Justin Matheson, Robert E Mann, Beth Sproule, Marilyn A Huestis, Christine M Wickens, Gina Stoduto, Tony P George, Jürgen Rehm, Bernard Le Foll, Bruna BrandsAcute and residual mood and cognitive performance of young adults following smoked cannabisPharmacol Biochem Behav.(2020 Jul)
    12. Heart Rate - B W Lex, J H Mendelson, S Bavli, K Harvey, N K MelloEffects of acute marijuana smoking on pulse rate and mood states in womenPsychopharmacology (Berl).(1984)
    13. Multiple Sclerosis Symptoms - Mari Carmen Torres-Moreno, Esther Papaseit, Marta Torrens, Magí FarréAssessment of Efficacy and Tolerability of Medicinal Cannabinoids in Patients With Multiple Sclerosis: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysisJAMA Netw Open.(2018 Oct 5)
    14. Multiple Sclerosis Symptoms - Jolana Markovà, Ute Essner, Bülent Akmaz, Marcella Marinelli, Christiane Trompke, Arnd Lentschat, Carlos VilaSativex ® as add-on therapy vs. further optimized first-line ANTispastics (SAVANT) in resistant multiple sclerosis spasticity: a double-blind, placebo-controlled randomised clinical trialInt J Neurosci.(2019 Feb)
    15. Multiple Sclerosis Symptoms - Letizia Leocani, Arturo Nuara, Elise Houdayer, Irene Schiavetti, Ubaldo Del Carro, Stefano Amadio, Laura Straffi, Paolo Rossi, Vittorio Martinelli, Carlos Vila, Maria Pia Sormani, Giancarlo ComiSativex(®) and clinical-neurophysiological measures of spasticity in progressive multiple sclerosisJ Neurol.(2015 Nov)
    16. Multiple Sclerosis Symptoms - Zajicek JP, Sanders HP, Wright DE, Vickery PJ, Ingram WM, Reilly SM, Nunn AJ, Teare LJ, Fox PJ, Thompson AJCannabinoids in multiple sclerosis (CAMS) study: safety and efficacy data for 12 months follow upJ Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry.(2005 Dec)
    17. Multiple Sclerosis Symptoms - Zajicek JP, Hobart JC, Slade A, Barnes D, Mattison PG, MUSEC Research GroupMultiple sclerosis and extract of cannabis: results of the MUSEC trialJ Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry.(2012 Nov)
    18. Multiple Sclerosis Symptoms - C Collin, E Ehler, G Waberzinek, Z Alsindi, P Davies, K Powell, W Notcutt, C O'Leary, S Ratcliffe, I Nováková, O Zapletalova, J Piková, Z AmblerA double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled, parallel-group study of Sativex, in subjects with symptoms of spasticity due to multiple sclerosisNeurol Res.(2010 Jun)
    19. Multiple Sclerosis Symptoms - Derick T Wade, Petra Makela, Philip Robson, Heather House, Cynthia BatemanDo cannabis-based medicinal extracts have general or specific effects on symptoms in multiple sclerosis? A double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled study on 160 patientsMult Scler.(2004 Aug)
    20. Multiple Sclerosis Symptoms - D T Wade, P M Makela, H House, C Bateman, P RobsonLong-term use of a cannabis-based medicine in the treatment of spasticity and other symptoms in multiple sclerosisMult Scler.(2006 Oct)
    21. Multiple Sclerosis Symptoms - Aragona M, Onesti E, Tomassini V, Conte A, Gupta S, Gilio F, Pantano P, Pozzilli C, Inghilleri MPsychopathological and cognitive effects of therapeutic cannabinoids in multiple sclerosis: a double-blind, placebo controlled, crossover studyClin Neuropharmacol.(2009 Jan-Feb)
    22. Multiple Sclerosis Symptoms - W Notcutt, R Langford, P Davies, S Ratcliffe, R PottsA placebo-controlled, parallel-group, randomized withdrawal study of subjects with symptoms of spasticity due to multiple sclerosis who are receiving long-term Sativex® (nabiximols)Mult Scler.(2012 Feb)
    23. Multiple Sclerosis Symptoms - Michael G Serpell, William Notcutt, Christine CollinSativex long-term use: an open-label trial in patients with spasticity due to multiple sclerosisJ Neurol.(2013 Jan)
    24. Multiple Sclerosis Symptoms - J Killestein, E L J Hoogervorst, M Reif, N F Kalkers, A C Van Loenen, P G M Staats, R W Gorter, B M J Uitdehaag, C H PolmanSafety, tolerability, and efficacy of orally administered cannabinoids in MSNeurology.(2002 May 14)
    25. Multiple Sclerosis Symptoms - Zajicek J, Fox P, Sanders H, Wright D, Vickery J, Nunn A, Thompson A, UK MS Research GroupCannabinoids for treatment of spasticity and other symptoms related to multiple sclerosis (CAMS study): multicentre randomised placebo-controlled trialLancet.(2003 Nov 8)
    26. Multiple Sclerosis Symptoms - R M Langford, J Mares, A Novotna, M Vachova, I Novakova, W Notcutt, S RatcliffeA double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled, parallel-group study of THC/CBD oromucosal spray in combination with the existing treatment regimen, in the relief of central neuropathic pain in patients with multiple sclerosisJ Neurol.(2013 Apr)
    27. Multiple Sclerosis Symptoms - A Novotna, J Mares, S Ratcliffe, I Novakova, M Vachova, O Zapletalova, C Gasperini, C Pozzilli, L Cefaro, G Comi, P Rossi, Z Ambler, Z Stelmasiak, A Erdmann, X Montalban, A Klimek, P Davies, Sativex Spasticity Study GroupA randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, parallel-group, enriched-design study of nabiximols* (Sativex(®) ), as add-on therapy, in subjects with refractory spasticity caused by multiple sclerosisEur J Neurol.(2011 Sep)
    28. Multiple Sclerosis Symptoms - Jody Corey-Bloom, Tanya Wolfson, Anthony Gamst, Shelia Jin, Thomas D Marcotte, Heather Bentley, Ben GouauxSmoked cannabis for spasticity in multiple sclerosis: a randomized, placebo-controlled trialCMAJ.(2012 Jul 10)
    29. Multiple Sclerosis Symptoms - P Fox, P G Bain, S Glickman, C Carroll, J ZajicekThe effect of cannabis on tremor in patients with multiple sclerosisNeurology.(2004 Apr 13)
    30. Multiple Sclerosis Symptoms - Sven G Meuth, Thomas Henze, Ute Essner, Christiane Trompke, Carlos Vila SilvánTetrahydrocannabinol and cannabidiol oromucosal spray in resistant multiple sclerosis spasticity: consistency of response across subgroups from the SAVANT randomized clinical trialInt J Neurosci.(2020 Dec)
    31. Multiple Sclerosis Symptoms - David J Rog, Turo J Nurmikko, Tim Friede, Carolyn A YoungRandomized, controlled trial of cannabis-based medicine in central pain in multiple sclerosisNeurology.(2005 Sep 27)
    32. Multiple Sclerosis Symptoms - C Vaney, M Heinzel-Gutenbrunner, P Jobin, F Tschopp, B Gattlen, U Hagen, M Schnelle, M ReifEfficacy, safety and tolerability of an orally administered cannabis extract in the treatment of spasticity in patients with multiple sclerosis: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover studyMult Scler.(2004 Aug)
    33. Balance - H S Greenberg, S A Werness, J E Pugh, R O Andrus, D J Anderson, E F DominoShort-term effects of smoking marijuana on balance in patients with multiple sclerosis and normal volunteersClin Pharmacol Ther.(1994 Mar)
    34. Urinary Incontinence Signs - R M Freeman, O Adekanmi, M R Waterfield, A E Waterfield, D Wright, J ZajicekThe effect of cannabis on urge incontinence in patients with multiple sclerosis: a multicentre, randomised placebo-controlled trial (CAMS-LUTS)Int Urogynecol J Pelvic Floor Dysfunct.(2006 Nov)
    35. Urinary Incontinence Signs - R B C Kavia, D De Ridder, C S Constantinescu, C G Stott, C J FowlerRandomized controlled trial of Sativex to treat detrusor overactivity in multiple sclerosisMult Scler.(2010 Nov)
    36. Tobacco Consumption - T H Kelly, R W Foltin, A J Rose, M W Fischman, J V BradySmoked marijuana effects on tobacco cigarette smoking behaviorJ Pharmacol Exp Ther.(1990 Mar)
    37. Food Intake - M Haney, A S Ward, S D Comer, R W Foltin, M W FischmanAbstinence symptoms following smoked marijuana in humansPsychopharmacology (Berl).(1999 Feb)
    38. Food Intake - M Haney, A S Ward, S D Comer, R W Foltin, M W FischmanAbstinence symptoms following oral THC administration to humansPsychopharmacology (Berl).(1999 Feb)
    39. Driving Speed - Thomas R Arkell, Nicholas Lintzeris, Richard C Kevin, Johannes G Ramaekers, Ryan Vandrey, Christopher Irwin, Paul S Haber, Iain S McGregorCannabidiol (CBD) content in vaporized cannabis does not prevent tetrahydrocannabinol (THC)-induced impairment of driving and cognitionPsychopharmacology (Berl).(2019 Sep)
    40. Driving Speed - Bruna Brands, Robert E Mann, Christine M Wickens, Beth Sproule, Gina Stoduto, Gillian S Sayer, Jillian Burston, Jie Fei Pan, Justin Matheson, Cristiana Stefan, Tony P George, Marilyn A Huestis, Jürgen Rehm, Bernard Le FollAcute and residual effects of smoked cannabis: Impact on driving speed and lateral control, heart rate, and self-reported drug effectsDrug Alcohol Depend.(2019 Dec 1)
    41. Driving Control - I Kurzthaler, M Hummer, C Miller, B Sperner-Unterweger, V Günther, H Wechdorn, H J Battista, W W FleischhackerEffect of cannabis use on cognitive functions and driving abilityJ Clin Psychiatry.(1999 Jun)
    42. Driving Control - Joëlle Micallef, Julien Dupouey, Elisabeth Jouve, Romain Truillet, Bruno Lacarelle, Jacques Taillard, Agnès Daurat, Colas Authié, Olivier Blin, Olivier Rascol, Pierre Philip, Daniel MestreCannabis smoking impairs driving performance on the simulator and real driving: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover trialFundam Clin Pharmacol.(2018 Oct)
    43. ADHD Symptoms - Ruth E Cooper, Emma Williams, Seth Seegobin, Charlotte Tye, Jonna Kuntsi, Philip AshersonCannabinoids in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: A randomised-controlled trialEur Neuropsychopharmacol.(2017 Aug)
    44. Motor Speed - E J Cone, R E Johnson, J D Moore, J D RoacheAcute effects of smoking marijuana on hormones, subjective effects and performance in male human subjectsPharmacol Biochem Behav.(1986 Jun)
    45. Balance - G B Chesher, K D Bird, D M Jackson, A Perrignon, G A StarmerThe effects of orally administered delta 9-tetrahydrocannabinol in man on mood and performance measures: a dose-response studyPharmacol Biochem Behav.(1990 Apr)
    46. Attention - Ziva D Cooper, Margaret HaneyOpioid antagonism enhances marijuana's effects in heavy marijuana smokersPsychopharmacology (Berl).(2010 Aug)
    47. Driving Speed - Tatiana Ogourtsova, Maja Kalaba, Isabelle Gelinas, Nicol Korner-Bitensky, Mark A WareCannabis use and driving-related performance in young recreational users: a within-subject randomized clinical trialCMAJ Open.(2018 Oct 14)
    48. Driving Speed - Beth M Anderson, Matthew Rizzo, Robert I Block, Godfrey D Pearlson, Daniel S O'LearySex differences in the effects of marijuana on simulated driving performanceJ Psychoactive Drugs.(2010 Mar)
    49. Driving Control - Thomas R Arkell, Frederick Vinckenbosch, Richard C Kevin, Eef L Theunissen, Iain S McGregor, Johannes G RamaekersEffect of Cannabidiol and Δ9-Tetrahydrocannabinol on Driving Performance: A Randomized Clinical TrialJAMA.(2020 Dec 1)
    50. Testosterone - E B De Sousa Fernandes Perna, E L Theunissen, K P C Kuypers, S W Toennes, J G RamaekersSubjective aggression during alcohol and cannabis intoxication before and after aggression exposurePsychopharmacology (Berl).(2016 Sep)
    51. Sleep Quality - Elaine G Boland, Michael I Bennett, Victoria Allgar, Jason W BolandCannabinoids for adult cancer-related pain: systematic review and meta-analysisBMJ Support Palliat Care.(2020 Mar)
    52. Pain - Jeremy R Johnson, Dominique Lossignol, Mary Burnell-Nugent, Marie T FallonAn open-label extension study to investigate the long-term safety and tolerability of THC/CBD oromucosal spray and oromucosal THC spray in patients with terminal cancer-related pain refractory to strong opioid analgesicsJ Pain Symptom Manage.(2013 Aug)
    53. Pain - Ziva D Cooper, Sandra D Comer, Margaret HaneyComparison of the analgesic effects of dronabinol and smoked marijuana in daily marijuana smokersNeuropsychopharmacology.(2013 Sep)
    54. Pain - Jeremy R Johnson, Mary Burnell-Nugent, Dominique Lossignol, Elena Doina Ganae-Motan, Richard Potts, Marie T FallonMulticenter, double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled, parallel-group study of the efficacy, safety, and tolerability of THC:CBD extract and THC extract in patients with intractable cancer-related painJ Pain Symptom Manage.(2010 Feb)
    55. Pain - Kraft B, Frickey NA, Kaufmann RM, Reif M, Frey R, Gustorff B, Kress HGLack of analgesia by oral standardized cannabis extract on acute inflammatory pain and hyperalgesia in volunteersAnesthesiology.(2008 Jul)
    56. Pain - Wallace M, Schulteis G, Atkinson JH, Wolfson T, Lazzaretto D, Bentley H, Gouaux B, Abramson IDose-dependent effects of smoked cannabis on capsaicin-induced pain and hyperalgesia in healthy volunteersAnesthesiology.(2007 Nov)
    57. Pain - Lee MC, Ploner M, Wiech K, Bingel U, Wanigasekera V, Brooks J, Menon DK, Tracey IAmygdala activity contributes to the dissociative effect of cannabis on pain perceptionPain.(2013 Jan)
    58. Analgesic Use - Russell K Portenoy, Elena Doina Ganae-Motan, Silvia Allende, Ronald Yanagihara, Lauren Shaiova, Sharon Weinstein, Robert McQuade, Stephen Wright, Marie T FallonNabiximols for opioid-treated cancer patients with poorly-controlled chronic pain: a randomized, placebo-controlled, graded-dose trialJ Pain.(2012 May)
    59. Analgesic Use - Marie T Fallon, Eberhard Albert Lux, Robert McQuade, Sandro Rossetti, Raymond Sanchez, Wei Sun, Stephen Wright, Aron H Lichtman, Elena KornyeyevaSativex oromucosal spray as adjunctive therapy in advanced cancer patients with chronic pain unalleviated by optimized opioid therapy: two double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled phase 3 studiesBr J Pain.(2017 Aug)
    60. Analgesic Use - Aron H Lichtman, Eberhard Albert Lux, Robert McQuade, Sandro Rossetti, Raymond Sanchez, Wei Sun, Stephen Wright, Elena Kornyeyeva, Marie T FallonResults of a Double-Blind, Randomized, Placebo-Controlled Study of Nabiximols Oromucosal Spray as an Adjunctive Therapy in Advanced Cancer Patients with Chronic Uncontrolled PainJ Pain Symptom Manage.(2018 Feb)
    61. Quality of Life - Gil Bar-Sela, Daniela Zalman, Valerya Semenysty, Eyal BallanThe Effects of Dosage-Controlled Cannabis Capsules on Cancer-Related Cachexia and Anorexia Syndrome in Advanced Cancer Patients: Pilot StudyIntegr Cancer Ther.(Jan-Dec 2019)
    62. Heart Rate - Merritt JC, Crawford WJ, Alexander PC, Anduze AL, Gelbart SSEffect of marihuana on intraocular and blood pressure in glaucomaOphthalmology.(1980 Mar)
    63. Heart Rate - Aronow W, Cassidy JEffect of smoking marihuana and of a high-nicotine cigarette on angina pectoris Clin Pharm.()
    64. Parkinson's Disease Symptoms - C B Carroll, P G Bain, L Teare, X Liu, C Joint, C Wroath, S G Parkin, P Fox, D Wright, J Hobart, J P ZajicekCannabis for dyskinesia in Parkinson disease: a randomized double-blind crossover studyNeurology.(2004 Oct 12)
    65. Heart Rate - R J Mathew, W H Wilson, D F Humphreys, J V Lowe, K E WietheRegional cerebral blood flow after marijuana smokingJ Cereb Blood Flow Metab.(1992 Sep)
    66. Heart Rate - R D Steadward, M SinghThe effects of smoking marihuana on physical performanceMed Sci Sports.(Winter 1975)
    67. Memory - Divya Ramesh, Margaret Haney, Ziva D CooperMarijuana's dose-dependent effects in daily marijuana smokersExp Clin Psychopharmacol.(2013 Aug)
    68. Blood Pressure - R J Mathew, W H Wilson, D Humphreys, J V Lowe, K E WietheMiddle cerebral artery velocity during upright posture after marijuana smokingActa Psychiatr Scand.(1992 Aug)
    69. Lung Function - Pletcher MJ, Vittinghoff E, Kalhan R, Richman J, Safford M, Sidney S, Lin F, Kertesz SAssociation between marijuana exposure and pulmonary function over 20 yearsJAMA.(2012 Jan 11)
    70. Aerobic Exercise Metrics - A M Renaud, Y CormierAcute effects of marihuana smoking on maximal exercise performanceMed Sci Sports Exerc.(1986 Dec)
    71. Hemoglobin - Timna Naftali, Lihi Bar-Lev Schleider, Iris Dotan, Ephraim Philip Lansky, Fabiana Sklerovsky Benjaminov, Fred Meir KonikoffCannabis induces a clinical response in patients with Crohn's disease: a prospective placebo-controlled studyClin Gastroenterol Hepatol.(2013 Oct)
    72. Sickle Cell Symptoms - Donald I Abrams, Paul Couey, Niharika Dixit, Varun Sagi, Ward Hagar, Elliott Vichinsky, Mary Ellen Kelly, John E Connett, Kalpna GuptaEffect of Inhaled Cannabis for Pain in Adults With Sickle Cell Disease: A Randomized Clinical TrialJAMA Netw Open.(2020 Jul 1)
    73. Intraocular Pressure - Ileana Tomida, Augusto Azuara-Blanco, Heather House, Maggie Flint, Roger G Pertwee, Philip J RobsonEffect of sublingual application of cannabinoids on intraocular pressure: a pilot studyJ Glaucoma.(2006 Oct)
    74. Diabetic Neuropathy Symptoms - Mark S Wallace, Thomas D Marcotte, Anya Umlauf, Ben Gouaux, Joseph H AtkinsonEfficacy of Inhaled Cannabis on Painful Diabetic NeuropathyJ Pain.(2015 Jul)
    75. Diabetic Neuropathy Symptoms - Dinesh Selvarajah, Rajiv Gandhi, Celia J Emery, Solomon TesfayeRandomized placebo-controlled double-blind clinical trial of cannabis-based medicinal product (Sativex) in painful diabetic neuropathy: depression is a major confounding factorDiabetes Care.(2010 Jan)
    76. Orthostatic Hypotension Symptoms - Mathew RJ, Wilson WH, Davis RPostural syncope after marijuana: a transcranial Doppler study of the hemodynamicsPharmacol Biochem Behav.(2003 May)
    77. Sleep Quality - M Serpell, S Ratcliffe, J Hovorka, M Schofield, L Taylor, H Lauder, E EhlerA double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled, parallel group study of THC/CBD spray in peripheral neuropathic pain treatmentEur J Pain.(2014 Aug)
    78. Sleep Quality - Turo J Nurmikko, Mick G Serpell, Barbara Hoggart, Peter J Toomey, Bart J Morlion, Derek HainesSativex successfully treats neuropathic pain characterised by allodynia: a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trialPain.(2007 Dec 15)
    79. Sleep Quality - Mark A Ware, Tongtong Wang, Stan Shapiro, Ann Robinson, Thierry Ducruet, Thao Huynh, Ann Gamsa, Gary J Bennett, Jean-Paul ColletSmoked cannabis for chronic neuropathic pain: a randomized controlled trialCMAJ.(2010 Oct 5)
    80. Subjective Well-Being - Carolina Chaves, Paulo Cesar T Bittencourt, Andreia PelegriniIngestion of a THC-Rich Cannabis Oil in People with Fibromyalgia: A Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Clinical TrialPain Med.(2020 Oct 1)
    81. Motor Control - Martín-Sánchez E, Furukawa TA, Taylor J, Martin JLSystematic review and meta-analysis of cannabis treatment for chronic painPain Med.(2009 Nov)
    82. Myotonia Symptoms - Federica Montagnese, Kristina Stahl, Stephan Wenninger, Benedikt SchoserA role for cannabinoids in the treatment of myotonia? Report of compassionate use in a small cohort of patientsJ Neurol.(2020 Feb)
    83. Fibromyalgia Symptoms - Tine van de Donk, Marieke Niesters, Mikael A Kowal, Erik Olofsen, Albert Dahan, Monique van VelzenAn experimental randomized study on the analgesic effects of pharmaceutical-grade cannabis in chronic pain patients with fibromyalgiaPain.(2019 Apr)
    84. Vomiting - P Grimison, A Mersiades, A Kirby, N Lintzeris, R Morton, P Haber, I Olver, A Walsh, I McGregor, Y Cheung, A Tognela, C Hahn, K Briscoe, M Aghmesheh, P Fox, E Abdi, S Clarke, S Della-Fiorentina, J Shannon, C Gedye, S Begbie, J Simes, M StocklerOral THC:CBD cannabis extract for refractory chemotherapy-induced nausea and vomiting: a randomised, placebo-controlled, phase II crossover trialAnn Oncol.(2020 Nov)
    85. Tourette Syndrome Symptoms - Nicola Black, Emily Stockings, Gabrielle Campbell, Lucy T Tran, Dino Zagic, Wayne D Hall, Michael Farrell, Louisa DegenhardtCannabinoids for the treatment of mental disorders and symptoms of mental disorders: a systematic review and meta-analysisLancet Psychiatry.(2019 Dec)
    86. Luteinizing Hormone - J H Mendelson, P Cristofaro, J Ellingboe, R Benedikt, N K MelloAcute effects of marihuana on luteinizing hormone in menopausal womenPharmacol Biochem Behav.(1985 Nov)
    87. Fatigue Symptoms - Anthony N Nicholson, Claire Turner, Barbara M Stone, Philip J RobsonEffect of Delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol and cannabidiol on nocturnal sleep and early-morning behavior in young adultsJ Clin Psychopharmacol.(2004 Jun)
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