What is cinnamon?
Cinnamon is a spice derived from the bark of trees in the Cinnamomum genus, particularly Cinnamomum zeylanicum (also known as Cinnamomum verum, “Ceylon cinnamon”, or “true cinnamon”) and Cinnamomum cassia (also called “Chinese cinnamon”).[17][18][19] The bark is typically ground into a powder or used in its stick form. Cinnamon is used for several culinary purposes and is added to several foods, including breakfast cereals, snack foods, breads, cakes, and drinks including tea, coffee, and hot chocolate.[17][18]
Cinnamon contains several bioactive compounds, including cinnamaldehyde, cinnamic acid, eugenol, and polyphenols.[17][18][19][20] Some of these compounds are claimed to have antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, and antidiabetic properties.[17][18][21][19][20] Consequently, cinnamon is used in traditional medicine to treat a range of conditions, and, due to its widespread health claims, some people choose to take cinnamon as a dietary supplement.[17][18][20]
What are cinnamon’s main benefits?
Cinnamon is claimed to treat several conditions, including diabetes and cardiovascular disease, respiratory and digestive disorders, and neurodegenerative conditions like Parkinson’s disease and Alzheimer’s disease.[17][18][19][20] Some in vitro and animal studies have yielded promising results, but clinical evidence is lacking for many of these conditions.
In humans, some meta-analyses of randomized controlled trials have shown that cinnamon can improve glycemic control (reduced blood glucose and HbA1c),[1][2][3][4][5] blood lipids (decreased triglycerides, LDL, total cholesterol),[6][7][8][9][10][11] and blood pressure.[12][13][14] Supplementation with cinnamon might also improve some biomarkers of inflammation and oxidative stress, including reduced plasma concentrations of interleukin 6 and C-reactive protein.[15][16][6] Therefore, cinnamon might be useful for the treatment of diabetes and cardiovascular disease. However, many clinical studies have a moderate to high risk of bias,[22][23][4][2][6][8][15] and many of the meta-analyses cited here find large variability (substantial heterogeneity) in the size of the effect between studies. Furthermore, large observational studies show that LDL, HDL, and HbA1c are not different between people who regularly consume cinnamon versus people who do not.[22] Consequently, more well-controlled randomized clinical trials are needed to definitively establish cinnamon's health benefits in humans.
What are cinnamon’s main drawbacks?
The main drawback is that the current evidence underpinning the clinical benefits of cinnamon is derived from studies with small sample sizes and low methodological quality (many studies lack a control group, do not blind the participants or investigators from the treatment, and are funded or authored by manufacturers of cinnamon-containing products).[22][23][4][2][6][8][15] Consequently, large high-quality clinical trials are needed to make firm conclusions about cinnamon's health benefits in humans.
A further drawback is that several studies investigating the effect of cinnamon supplements on blood glucose, lipids, and blood pressure (see What are cinnamon’s main benefits?) do not report the participants’ dietary habits (daily energy intake) or physical activity levels (daily energy expenditure). This is problematic, because several such studies also report weight loss in the cinnamon treatment groups, which could be interpreted to mean that cinnamon causes weight loss.[24][25][26][27] However, without information about daily energy intake/expenditure, the direct effects of cinnamon supplementation on changes in body weight are unclear. Furthermore, because weight loss independently improves blood glucose, lipids, and blood pressure, this further complicates the interpretation of cinnamon’s direct effect on such variables and underlines the urgent need for well-controlled clinical trials in this field.
Cinnamon also has some safety concerns. Firstly, ingesting large amounts of cinnamon can cause gastrointestinal issues (diarrhea, nausea, and vomiting).[28][29] Secondly, cinnamon contains coumarin,[30][31][32][33] which can cause liver damage and interfere with blood clotting if ingested in sufficient amounts.[34][29][35] For this reason, cinnamon might interact negatively with blood-thinning medications and hepatotoxic drugs and be harmful to people with liver conditions. However, these potential interactions have not been well studied. Because cinnamon can also lower blood glucose and blood pressure (see What are cinnamon’s main benefits?), it is possible that cinnamon could interact with glucose-lowering and blood-pressure-lowering drugs; however, such interactions have not been investigated.
Despite the above-described concerns, adverse reactions caused by ingesting cinnamon are rare and generally mild,[23][28][29][36] and cinnamon is considered to be safe for consumption at the levels typically consumed.[34][29][37]
How does cinnamon work?
Bioactive molecules found in cinnamon affect various physiological processes.[17][18] For example, cinnamon extracts have been shown to have antimicrobial properties that inhibit bacterial and fungal growth and antioxidant properties that neutralize free radicals to help lower oxidative stress.[17][18][21] Other in vitro studies have shown that cinnamon extracts and cinnamaldehyde can reduce inflammation by blocking NF-kB activity, reducing cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) enzyme activity, blunting nitric oxide (NO) production, and lowering the concentration of proinflammatory cytokines like interleukin 6 (IL-6).[17][18] These beneficial effects on inflammation might explain how cinnamon supplementation can lower blood glucose, blood pressure, and blood lipids, because conditions in which these variables are elevated are associated with low-grade chronic inflammation. Furthermore, cinnamon’s blood-glucose-lowering capacity might be caused by polyphenols that increase glucose uptake into cells by mimicking the function of insulin.[17][38][39] However, the precise mechanisms by which cinnamon ingestion may improve certain outcomes are not fully understood and require further exploration.
What are other names for Cinnamon
- Cinnamomum zeylanicum
- Cinnamomum verum
- Ceylon (True) cinnamon
- Cinnamomum cassia
- Chinese cinnamon
- Cassia cinnamon
Dosage information
Formulations:
Powder, stick, and tablets.
Range of dosages studied:
0.1 to 14 grams per day (g/day).
Effective Dosages:
Glycemic control (including blood glucose and HbA1c)
Adults: Due to a lack of dose-response studies and variable findings from meta-regression studies, the precise effective dosage for improving glycemic control is uncertain, but it might be approximately 2 to 4 grams/day.[1][2][3][4][5]
Special considerations: It is unclear whether cinnamon should be taken with food or not, because the efficacy of cinnamon on glycemic control has not been thoroughly examined in the presence vs. the absence of food.
Blood lipids (including triglycerides, LDL, and total cholesterol)
Adults: Due to a lack of dose-response studies and variable findings from meta-regression studies, the precise effective dosage for improving blood pressure is uncertain, but it might be approximately 1 to 6 grams/day.[6][7][8][9][10][11]
Special considerations: It is unclear whether cinnamon should be taken with food or not, because the efficacy of cinnamon on blood lipids has not been thoroughly examined in the presence vs. the absence of food.
Adults: Due to a lack of dose-response studies and variable findings from meta-regression studies, the precise effective dosage for improving blood pressure is uncertain, but it might be less than or equal to 2 grams/day.[12][13][14]
Special considerations: It is unclear whether cinnamon should be taken with food or not, because the efficacy of cinnamon on blood pressure has not been thoroughly examined in the presence vs. the absence of food.
Inflammation and oxidative stress
Adults: Due to a lack of dose-response studies and variable findings from meta-regression studies, the precise effective dosage for improving blood pressure is uncertain, but it might be approximately 1 to 3 grams/day.[15][16][6]
Special considerations: It is unclear whether cinnamon should be taken with food or not, because the efficacy of cinnamon on blood pressure has not been thoroughly examined in the presence vs. the absence of food.
Other Considerations:
Because of its coumarin content, cinnamon has the potential to interact negatively with blood-thinning medications and hepatotoxic drugs. See What are cinnamon’s main drawbacks? for further details.
Frequently asked questions
Cinnamon is a spice derived from the bark of trees in the Cinnamomum genus, particularly Cinnamomum zeylanicum (also known as Cinnamomum verum, “Ceylon cinnamon”, or “true cinnamon”) and Cinnamomum cassia (also called “Chinese cinnamon”).[17][18][19] The bark is typically ground into a powder or used in its stick form. Cinnamon is used for several culinary purposes and is added to several foods, including breakfast cereals, snack foods, breads, cakes, and drinks including tea, coffee, and hot chocolate.[17][18]
Cinnamon contains several bioactive compounds, including cinnamaldehyde, cinnamic acid, eugenol, and polyphenols.[17][18][19][20] Some of these compounds are claimed to have antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, and antidiabetic properties.[17][18][21][19][20] Consequently, cinnamon is used in traditional medicine to treat a range of conditions, and, due to its widespread health claims, some people choose to take cinnamon as a dietary supplement.[17][18][20]
Cinnamon is claimed to treat several conditions, including diabetes and cardiovascular disease, respiratory and digestive disorders, and neurodegenerative conditions like Parkinson’s disease and Alzheimer’s disease.[17][18][19][20] Some in vitro and animal studies have yielded promising results, but clinical evidence is lacking for many of these conditions.
In humans, some meta-analyses of randomized controlled trials have shown that cinnamon can improve glycemic control (reduced blood glucose and HbA1c),[1][2][3][4][5] blood lipids (decreased triglycerides, LDL, total cholesterol),[6][7][8][9][10][11] and blood pressure.[12][13][14] Supplementation with cinnamon might also improve some biomarkers of inflammation and oxidative stress, including reduced plasma concentrations of interleukin 6 and C-reactive protein.[15][16][6] Therefore, cinnamon might be useful for the treatment of diabetes and cardiovascular disease. However, many clinical studies have a moderate to high risk of bias,[22][23][4][2][6][8][15] and many of the meta-analyses cited here find large variability (substantial heterogeneity) in the size of the effect between studies. Furthermore, large observational studies show that LDL, HDL, and HbA1c are not different between people who regularly consume cinnamon versus people who do not.[22] Consequently, more well-controlled randomized clinical trials are needed to definitively establish cinnamon's health benefits in humans.
A meta-analysis of 40 studies concluded that cinnamon significantly improves aspects of cognitive function, including memory and learning).[40] However, the analysis inappropriately pooled results from in vitro studies, animal studies, and clinical studies. Additionally, most of the in vitro and animal studies did not investigate cinnamon; instead, they tested the effects of molecules isolated from cinnamon — cinnamic acid, eugenol, cinnamaldehyde, and extracts — in high amounts. Furthermore, cognitive function (e.g., memory and learning) cannot be assessed in vitro (i.e., when growing cells in a dish). More importantly, there were only 2 clinical studies in the analysis: One administered a single 2-gram dose to 48 older adults and found no change in working memory, and the other administered a daily cinnamon-containing chewing gum (containing an unspecified amount of cinnamon) for 40 days to 15 adolescents and found an improved memory. Therefore, based on current evidence, it cannot be concluded whether cinnamon improves cognitive function in humans or not. This may change when further high-quality randomized controlled trials are published.
Of note is that many of the in vitro and animal studies showed that cinnamon, or molecules isolated from cinnamon, prevented the accumulation of amyloid-β and tau, which are key proteins involved in neurodegenerative processes. Such findings require further exploration in clinical trials.
Different types of cinnamon come from the bark of different trees in the Cinnamomum family. “Ceylon cinnamon”, sometimes called “true cinnamon”, comes from the Cinnamomum zeylanicum tree (also known as Cinnamomum verum) and is often marketed as the “best” type of cinnamon. Does the evidence support this notion?
Firstly, as mentioned elsewhere in this FAQ, cinnamon products can contain a blend of different types of cinnamon.[31][42][33][41] Consequently, for studies that do not specify which type of cinnamon was used, it is possible that the reported effects result from a blend of different types of cinnamon. In such studies, isolating the effect of a specific type of cinnamon is impossible.
Secondly, while clinical studies in this field sometimes state the method of cinnamon delivery (e.g., capsules, powder, or sticks), the specific type of cinnamon is less frequently described,[1][4][7][8][9][10][11][12][13][14][15] and no clinical trials have explicitly compared the effects of different types of cinnamon. That said, some meta-analyses have tried to infer such conclusions. For example, Moridpour et al. (2023) found that Cassia cinnamon might have a greater benefit on glycemic control than Ceylon cinnamon.[3] Another meta-analysis by Sarmadi et al. (2023) found a similar magnitude of effect between Ceylon and Cassia cinnamon on triglycerides but a greater effect of Ceylon cinnamon on total cholesterol and LDL.[6] Similarly, Jamali et al. (2020) found a greater effect of Ceylon cinnamon than Cassia on total cholesterol and LDL but, unlike Moridpour et al., a more robust effect of Cassia on triglycerides.[9]
These meta-analytical findings indicate the potential for different types of cinnamon to vary in their magnitude of benefit. However, it is important to note that the comparisons made in these meta-analyses were based on a small number of studies and there was considerable between-study heterogeneity.[3][6][9] For this reason, it is not currently possible to conclude that one type of cinnamon is better than another; high-quality randomized controlled trials comparing cinnamon types — e.g., “Ceylon cinnamon” (Cinnamomum zeylanicum/Cinnamomum verum) vs. “Cassia cinnamon” (Cinnamomum cassia) — are needed to make such a conclusion.
The main drawback is that the current evidence underpinning the clinical benefits of cinnamon is derived from studies with small sample sizes and low methodological quality (many studies lack a control group, do not blind the participants or investigators from the treatment, and are funded or authored by manufacturers of cinnamon-containing products).[22][23][4][2][6][8][15] Consequently, large high-quality clinical trials are needed to make firm conclusions about cinnamon's health benefits in humans.
A further drawback is that several studies investigating the effect of cinnamon supplements on blood glucose, lipids, and blood pressure (see What are cinnamon’s main benefits?) do not report the participants’ dietary habits (daily energy intake) or physical activity levels (daily energy expenditure). This is problematic, because several such studies also report weight loss in the cinnamon treatment groups, which could be interpreted to mean that cinnamon causes weight loss.[24][25][26][27] However, without information about daily energy intake/expenditure, the direct effects of cinnamon supplementation on changes in body weight are unclear. Furthermore, because weight loss independently improves blood glucose, lipids, and blood pressure, this further complicates the interpretation of cinnamon’s direct effect on such variables and underlines the urgent need for well-controlled clinical trials in this field.
Cinnamon also has some safety concerns. Firstly, ingesting large amounts of cinnamon can cause gastrointestinal issues (diarrhea, nausea, and vomiting).[28][29] Secondly, cinnamon contains coumarin,[30][31][32][33] which can cause liver damage and interfere with blood clotting if ingested in sufficient amounts.[34][29][35] For this reason, cinnamon might interact negatively with blood-thinning medications and hepatotoxic drugs and be harmful to people with liver conditions. However, these potential interactions have not been well studied. Because cinnamon can also lower blood glucose and blood pressure (see What are cinnamon’s main benefits?), it is possible that cinnamon could interact with glucose-lowering and blood-pressure-lowering drugs; however, such interactions have not been investigated.
Despite the above-described concerns, adverse reactions caused by ingesting cinnamon are rare and generally mild,[23][28][29][36] and cinnamon is considered to be safe for consumption at the levels typically consumed.[34][29][37]
Cinnamon contains a molecule called coumarin,[30][31][32][33] which is potentially toxic to humans if ingested in high amounts.[41][34][29][35] Research has shown that different types of cinnamon contain different amounts of coumarin. For example, Cinnamomum cassia (“Chinese cinnamon”) typically contains far greater quantities of coumarin than Cinnamomum zeylanicum (also called Cinnamomum verum or “Ceylon cinnamon”).[42][33] However, because some cinnamon products found in food stores contain a blend of different types of cinnamon, there can be wide variability in the coumarin content of different cinnamon-containing products.[31][42][33][41]
Bioactive molecules found in cinnamon affect various physiological processes.[17][18] For example, cinnamon extracts have been shown to have antimicrobial properties that inhibit bacterial and fungal growth and antioxidant properties that neutralize free radicals to help lower oxidative stress.[17][18][21] Other in vitro studies have shown that cinnamon extracts and cinnamaldehyde can reduce inflammation by blocking NF-kB activity, reducing cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) enzyme activity, blunting nitric oxide (NO) production, and lowering the concentration of proinflammatory cytokines like interleukin 6 (IL-6).[17][18] These beneficial effects on inflammation might explain how cinnamon supplementation can lower blood glucose, blood pressure, and blood lipids, because conditions in which these variables are elevated are associated with low-grade chronic inflammation. Furthermore, cinnamon’s blood-glucose-lowering capacity might be caused by polyphenols that increase glucose uptake into cells by mimicking the function of insulin.[17][38][39] However, the precise mechanisms by which cinnamon ingestion may improve certain outcomes are not fully understood and require further exploration.
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