Magnesium

    Researchedby:
    Brady Holmer, Thomas Solomon

    Fact-checked

    by:

    Marina Shkayeva, Louie Neri
    Last Updated: July 23, 2024

    Magnesium is an essential dietary mineral that is involved in energy production, nervous system function, blood pressure regulation, and blood glucose control. A lack of magnesium in the diet — which is common in modern societies — is associated with an increased risk of diabetes, cardiovascular disease, and other health conditions.

    What is magnesium?

    Magnesium is an essential dietary nutrient and is one of the most abundant minerals in the body. Magnesium acts as an electrolyte and is a cofactor for more than 300 enzymes. Magnesium is required for energy (ATP) production, glucose metabolism, DNA and protein synthesis, nerve conduction, bone health, and cardiovascular regulation, among other functions. It also plays a crucial role in the synthesis and activation of vitamin D.

    Dietary sources of magnesium include dark green leafy vegetables, nuts and seeds, legumes, whole grains, and meat/fish such as salmon, chicken, and beef.[4] Many foods such as breakfast cereals and bread are fortified with magnesium. It appears that approximately 20%–40% of the dietary magnesium that enters the body becomes bioavailable.[5][6][7]

    More than half of adults may not meet the recommended daily intake of magnesium,[4] likely because Western diets tend to be very low in magnesium-rich foods and high in processed foods and refined grains, which are magnesium-poor. As such, magnesium deficiency — which elevates the risk of obesity, diabetes, cardiovascular disease, metabolic syndrome, and osteoporosis — is a major public health concern, especially for older adults.[8][9]

    What are the different types of magnesium?

    What foods are highest in magnesium?

    What are magnesium’s main benefits?

    Low magnesium levels are associated with a higher risk of diabetes, and supplementation with magnesium has been shown to reduce blood glucose and improve insulin sensitivity,[10][11][12] especially in people who are insulin resistant and/or magnesium deficient[13][14][15][16] and/or in women with gestational diabetes.[12][17]

    Supplemental magnesium also appears to lower blood pressure in people who are deficient in magnesium[18][19] and in those who have elevated blood pressure (hypertension).[20][21][22] The average reduction in blood pressure after magnesium supplementation is 2–4 mmHg for systolic blood pressure and 2 mmHg for diastolic blood pressure,[23][24] though the reductions may be greater for individuals with type 2 diabetes (6–8 mmHg and 2–3 mmHg for systolic and diastolic blood pressure, respectively).[25][26]

    There is some indication that magnesium supplementation may reduce the frequency and intensity of migraine headache[27][28][29] and attenuate premenstrual symptoms in women.[30][31][32]

    Does magnesium help with sleep?

    Can you take magnesium during pregnancy?

    Does magnesium help with anxiety?

    Does magnesium help with constipation?

    Does magnesium help with blood pressure?

    What are magnesium’s main drawbacks?

    Magnesium supplementation that is not excessive is well tolerated and probably won’t cause side effects, and it’s difficult to ingest too much magnesium from food sources alone. Excess magnesium in the body is eliminated by the kidneys, so the risk of magnesium toxicity from food is quite low for healthy people.[33]

    Supplementing with high doses and certain magnesium salts (i.e., magnesium carbonate, magnesium chloride, magnesium gluconate, magnesium hydroxide, and magnesium oxide) can have a laxative effect — though some people choose to take certain forms of magnesium for this reason.[2][4] Unabsorbed magnesium salts have an osmotic effect in the intestinal tract and can increase gastric motility. In one study, 12% of participants experienced diarrhea with a 1,000 mg dose of magnesium oxide,[34] but this form of magnesium is poorly absorbed, and the dose is well above the tolerable upper limit (UL) for magnesium of 350 mg for healthy adults.[35] Nausea, diarrhea, and abdominal cramping are also occasional side effects reported from supplemental magnesium.

    Magnesium supplements can also interfere with the absorption of certain medications, including bisphosphonates (used for treating osteoporosis) and antibiotics — to avoid these interactions, individuals who are taking these types of medications should talk to their healthcare provider about how to space out and time their supplemental magnesium.[4]

    Does ZMA cause weird dreams?

    How does magnesium work?

    Many observations related to magnesium’s effect on reducing disease risk are likely due to correction of a deficiency. In other words, it may not be the case that supplemental magnesium is beneficial per se; instead, magnesium deficiency may lead to several health problems, many of which may be related to chronic low-grade inflammation.[36] There is also the possibility of reverse causation because many modern diseases (i.e., obesity and diabetes) may lead to a magnesium deficiency.

    Nonetheless, there are well-documented mechanisms that explain why magnesium may benefit health.

    For one, magnesium plays a role in beta-cell activity in the pancreas, influencing insulin secretion and, therefore, our ability to regulate blood glucose. Magnesium deficiency can lead to impaired insulin secretion, impaired glucose utilization, and insulin resistance — all of which contribute to the development of type 2 diabetes.[37]

    In the cardiovascular system, magnesium regulates calcium concentrations, which enhances vascular relaxation and inhibits vasoconstriction, leading to healthy vascular tone and protecting against high blood pressure (hypertension). Magnesium also improves endothelial function by directly stimulating the release of nitric oxide(NO).[38]

    In the brain, magnesium binds to and blocks the actions of NMDA receptors, thereby preventing glutamate-dependent transmission of cortical spreading depression — one mechanism involved in the pathogenesis of migraine headache. Magnesium is also a GABA agonist. Magnesium affects the function of serotonin receptors, influences platelet aggregation, and regulates the synthesis and release of several neurotransmitters. These mechanisms explain magnesium’s benefit for migraine, as well as the potential for magnesium to improve sleep and other aspects of neurological health.[39][40]

    Does low magnesium lead to muscle cramps?

    What are other names for Magnesium

    Note that Magnesium is also known as:
    • Magnesium oxide
    • Magnesium hydroxide
    • Magnesium citrate
    • Magnesium aspartate
    • Magnesium glycinate
    • Magnesium orotate
    • Magnesium L-threonate
    • Magnesium chloride
    • Magnesium lactate
    • Magnesium malate
    • Magnesium sulfate
    • Magnesium taurate
    • Magnesium carbonate
    Magnesium should not be confused with:
    • Manganese

    Dosage information

    The recommended dietary allowance (RDA) of magnesium for adults is 410–420 mg/day for men and 320–360 mg/day for women. This includes magnesium from all sources such as food, beverages, supplements, and medications. The tolerable upper intake level (UL) for magnesium for adults is 350 mg; this value only includes magnesium obtained from dietary supplements and medications.

    Which forms of magnesium are best for people who are looking to increase their magnesium levels for general purposes or to correct a deficiency? Magnesium citrate appears to have the highest bioavailability of all of the forms of magnesium,[1] followed by magnesium lactate. Magnesium chloride, magnesium gluconate, and magnesium glycinate also appear to have good bioavailability.[2] On the other hand, magnesium oxide and magnesium carbonate have extremely poor absorption and aren’t recommended for the purpose of increasing magnesium levels in the body.

    Magnesium citrate — especially potassium magnesium citrate — and magnesium lactate also appear to carry a lower risk of gastrointestinal side effects and diarrhea compared to other formulations.[2] Side effects seem to be reported more frequently when supplementing with magnesium carbonate and magnesium oxide, though gastrointestinal issues can occur with any type of magnesium supplement if too high of a dose is taken. Although magnesium sulfate (Epsom salt) is often used in bath preparations to soothe achy and sore muscles, there’s a lack of evidence to support the transdermal (through the skin) absorption of magnesium.[3] A warm soak might be relaxing, but it’s not due to the magnesium.

    Frequently asked questions

    What is magnesium?

    Magnesium is an essential dietary nutrient and is one of the most abundant minerals in the body. Magnesium acts as an electrolyte and is a cofactor for more than 300 enzymes. Magnesium is required for energy (ATP) production, glucose metabolism, DNA and protein synthesis, nerve conduction, bone health, and cardiovascular regulation, among other functions. It also plays a crucial role in the synthesis and activation of vitamin D.

    Dietary sources of magnesium include dark green leafy vegetables, nuts and seeds, legumes, whole grains, and meat/fish such as salmon, chicken, and beef.[4] Many foods such as breakfast cereals and bread are fortified with magnesium. It appears that approximately 20%–40% of the dietary magnesium that enters the body becomes bioavailable.[5][6][7]

    More than half of adults may not meet the recommended daily intake of magnesium,[4] likely because Western diets tend to be very low in magnesium-rich foods and high in processed foods and refined grains, which are magnesium-poor. As such, magnesium deficiency — which elevates the risk of obesity, diabetes, cardiovascular disease, metabolic syndrome, and osteoporosis — is a major public health concern, especially for older adults.[8][9]

    What are the different types of magnesium?

    Magnesium supplements generally come in the form of magnesium salts bound to another element or amino acid. Some of the main forms of magnesium include magnesium oxide, magnesium hydroxide (the commercial product Milk of Magnesia), magnesium citrate, magnesium lactate, magnesium gluconate, magnesium aspartate, magnesium glycinate, magnesium orotate, magnesium threonate, and magnesium sulfate (Epsom salt).

    Some forms of magnesium (such as magnesium hydroxide and magnesium oxide) are typically used for laxative purposes. Magnesium citrate is the most commonly used form of supplemental magnesium because of its high bioavailability and relatively low cost. Magnesium threonate has been investigated for its effects on increasing brain magnesium levels, which may benefit learning and memory,[50][51] although research to date has only been conducted in animal models (rats).

    In other words, different forms of magnesium are used for different specific purposes.

    What foods are highest in magnesium?

    A variety of plant and animal foods are good sources of magnesium, including the following:

    Dark leafy green vegetables: kale, spinach, collard greens, turnip greens, mustard greens

    Nuts and seeds: cashews, almonds, pumpkin seeds, chia seeds, flaxseed

    Beans and legumes: lentils, chickpeas, peas, soybeans, black beans, kidney beans, peanuts

    Whole grains: rice, oats, whole-wheat bread, quinoa, buckwheat, barley

    Fruits and vegetables: bananas, avocados, potatoes, raisins, apples, carrots, broccoli

    Meat and fish: salmon, halibut, chicken, lean ground beef

    Other dietary sources of magnesium include fortified bread and breakfast cereals, milk and yogurt products, and, serendipitously, dark chocolate.[4]

    Of note, approximately 30%–40% of the dietary magnesium we eat is absorbed by the body when a mixed (i.e., omnivorous) diet is consumed.[52][5][7][6] The consumption of certain foods( i.e., low-oxalate leafy green vegetables) also appears to enhance magnesium bioavailability compared to magnesium obtained from eating whole grains or oxalate-rich vegetables, which contain compounds that interfere with magnesium absorption.[53][54][55]

    What are magnesium’s main benefits?

    Low magnesium levels are associated with a higher risk of diabetes, and supplementation with magnesium has been shown to reduce blood glucose and improve insulin sensitivity,[10][11][12] especially in people who are insulin resistant and/or magnesium deficient[13][14][15][16] and/or in women with gestational diabetes.[12][17]

    Supplemental magnesium also appears to lower blood pressure in people who are deficient in magnesium[18][19] and in those who have elevated blood pressure (hypertension).[20][21][22] The average reduction in blood pressure after magnesium supplementation is 2–4 mmHg for systolic blood pressure and 2 mmHg for diastolic blood pressure,[23][24] though the reductions may be greater for individuals with type 2 diabetes (6–8 mmHg and 2–3 mmHg for systolic and diastolic blood pressure, respectively).[25][26]

    There is some indication that magnesium supplementation may reduce the frequency and intensity of migraine headache[27][28][29] and attenuate premenstrual symptoms in women.[30][31][32]

    Does magnesium help with sleep?

    Due to its actions as an N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) antagonist and a gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) agonist, magnesium is hypothesized to help regulate the sleep/wake cycle and thereby promote healthy sleep.[56][57] For this reason, magnesium is often promoted as a sleep-enhancing supplement, and some people use magnesium to treat insomnia and improve sleep quality and/or sleep duration. However, there is surprisingly little evidence to support its use.

    Some evidence from animal studies shows that higher magnesium levels in specific sites in the brain are associated with better sleep quality.[58] Some evidence from observational studies in humans finds low serum magnesium concentrations in people with obstructive sleep apnea, a sleep disorder associated with sleep disturbances.[59] Meanwhile, other evidence from observational studies shows that higher magnesium intake is associated with better sleep quality.[60] However, these lines of evidence do not prove that magnesium helps with sleep.

    Unfortunately, very few randomized controlled trials have assessed the effect of magnesium on sleep quality or sleep duration, and their outcomes are mixed.[61][62][63] Consequently, although recent systematic reviews and meta-analyses have found that supplemental magnesium may reduce sleep latency by approximately 17 minutes, they conclude that the quality of current evidence is insufficient to make well-informed recommendations and that larger randomized controlled trials are needed to remedy that issue.[56][64]

    Can you take magnesium during pregnancy?

    Supplementation with magnesium during pregnancy can have health benefits for both mother and baby; however, the quality of evidence is mixed, and large, well‐designed randomized controlled trials are needed to draw firm conclusions.[65][66][67][12][68][49][69][28][70]

    Importantly, adverse effects of magnesium are rare, and supplementation with magnesium before or during pregnancy appears to be safe for mother and baby.[65][66][69][70] That said, women who are pregnant or planning to become pregnant should consult their doctor for advice before starting to supplement with magnesium.

    Does magnesium help with anxiety?

    Observational studies have found that serum magnesium concentrations are not different between people with and without generalized anxiety disorder[71] and that serum magnesium concentrations are not correlated with self-reported levels of anxiety.[72][73] Some observational studies have found an association between a greater dietary magnesium intake and lower odds of anxiety,[74] but other studies do not confirm that finding.[75][76]

    Some clinical trials have compared magnesium to magnesium + pyridoxine (vitamin b6) and found a post-trial decrease in self-reported anxiety and/or stress levels in people in the magnesium group.[77][78][79] However, conclusions concerning the direct effect of magnesium cannot be made from studies lacking a control group who did not take magnesium. Fortunately, there are some randomized controlled trials comparing supplementation with magnesium to a placebo. These studies have mixed outcomes that showed a possible, but weak, effect of magnesium on anxiety.[61][80][81][32][82][83] However, the overall quality of the evidence is low, and high-quality randomized controlled trials are needed.[82][83]

    Does magnesium help with constipation?

    Some people take Milk of Magnesia, which contains magnesium hydroxide, to alleviate constipation. While some studies find a benefit,[84][85][86][87] its overall efficacy is unclear due to a lack of high-quality research.[88][89] Other studies have found that magnesium oxide might also improve constipation;[90][91][92] similarly, however, further high-quality research is needed to draw firm conclusions concerning its efficacy.

    It’s important to note that Milk of Magnesia has several drug interactions (e.g., aspirin, prednisone, cholecalciferol (vitamin D3)); therefore, people who use medications should consult their doctor before using Milk of Magnesia/magnesium hydroxide. Furthermore, Milk of Magnesia interacts with several conditions. People with intestinal disorders, kidney problems, or inflammatory bowel disease should also consult their doctor before using Milk of Magnesia/magnesium hydroxide.

    Does magnesium help with blood pressure?

    Large cross-sectional studies have shown that a higher systolic blood pressure in adults who experience hypertensive crises (sudden and severe rises in blood pressure) is associated with a higher serum magnesium concentration.[93] However, in healthy children and adults without hypertensive crises, higher blood pressure is associated with a lower serum magnesium concentration.[94][95][96] Furthermore, children with lower serum magnesium concentrations are more likely to have high blood pressure,[94][95] and serum magnesium concentrations are lower in adults with high blood pressure (hypertension) compared to healthy adults.[96]

    Other types of observational studies show that a lower systolic blood pressure is associated with a high dietary magnesium intake[96][97] and that people with a high dietary magnesium intake are less likely to have high blood pressure (hypertension).[98] However, not all studies confirm this relationship,[99] and these types of studies have limitations because magnesium intake is estimated from self-reported diet intake surveys. Consequently, they do not reveal whether supplementation with magnesium helps with blood pressure.

    Meta-analyses of randomized controlled trials show that supplementation with magnesium can have a small but meaningful effect on lowering blood pressure in people with high blood pressure,[100][23][101][102] prediabetes,[24] or type 2 diabetes.[26][25] However, there is large between-trial variability in the effect size, and the efficacy of magnesium on blood pressure appears greatest in people with low serum magnesium concentrations.[11][23] That said, many randomized controlled trials do not report baseline serum magnesium concentrations, so this relationship requires further exploration.

    What are magnesium’s main drawbacks?

    Magnesium supplementation that is not excessive is well tolerated and probably won’t cause side effects, and it’s difficult to ingest too much magnesium from food sources alone. Excess magnesium in the body is eliminated by the kidneys, so the risk of magnesium toxicity from food is quite low for healthy people.[33]

    Supplementing with high doses and certain magnesium salts (i.e., magnesium carbonate, magnesium chloride, magnesium gluconate, magnesium hydroxide, and magnesium oxide) can have a laxative effect — though some people choose to take certain forms of magnesium for this reason.[2][4] Unabsorbed magnesium salts have an osmotic effect in the intestinal tract and can increase gastric motility. In one study, 12% of participants experienced diarrhea with a 1,000 mg dose of magnesium oxide,[34] but this form of magnesium is poorly absorbed, and the dose is well above the tolerable upper limit (UL) for magnesium of 350 mg for healthy adults.[35] Nausea, diarrhea, and abdominal cramping are also occasional side effects reported from supplemental magnesium.

    Magnesium supplements can also interfere with the absorption of certain medications, including bisphosphonates (used for treating osteoporosis) and antibiotics — to avoid these interactions, individuals who are taking these types of medications should talk to their healthcare provider about how to space out and time their supplemental magnesium.[4]

    Does ZMA cause weird dreams?
    Quick answer:

    It is possible that ZMA can cause weird dreams, and the anecdotes support this; however, since this has not been directly investigated the best 'proof' that can be given is weak.

    ZMA is a proprietary blend of Zinc bound to monomethionine, Magnesium bound to aspartate, and the vitamin B6 (Pyridoxine). It is sometimes reported to give users 'weird, vivid dreams'.

    This claim has not been investigated much, but a pilot study[41] suggests that a dose of 250mg pyridoxine can alter dream perception in college aged men, through a hypothesized increased conversion of tryptophan to serotonin. This dose of B6, however, is much higher than that occurring in ZMA products; which tends to range in the 10-50mg range and usually at the lower end.

    One other study has reported synergism between B6 and Magnesium in regards to anxiety reduction, when the subjects were women experiencing PMS;[42] it is theoretically possible that the ZMA formulation enhances the actions of pyridoxine allowing the previous research's results to be relevant.

    How does magnesium work?

    Many observations related to magnesium’s effect on reducing disease risk are likely due to correction of a deficiency. In other words, it may not be the case that supplemental magnesium is beneficial per se; instead, magnesium deficiency may lead to several health problems, many of which may be related to chronic low-grade inflammation.[36] There is also the possibility of reverse causation because many modern diseases (i.e., obesity and diabetes) may lead to a magnesium deficiency.

    Nonetheless, there are well-documented mechanisms that explain why magnesium may benefit health.

    For one, magnesium plays a role in beta-cell activity in the pancreas, influencing insulin secretion and, therefore, our ability to regulate blood glucose. Magnesium deficiency can lead to impaired insulin secretion, impaired glucose utilization, and insulin resistance — all of which contribute to the development of type 2 diabetes.[37]

    In the cardiovascular system, magnesium regulates calcium concentrations, which enhances vascular relaxation and inhibits vasoconstriction, leading to healthy vascular tone and protecting against high blood pressure (hypertension). Magnesium also improves endothelial function by directly stimulating the release of nitric oxide(NO).[38]

    In the brain, magnesium binds to and blocks the actions of NMDA receptors, thereby preventing glutamate-dependent transmission of cortical spreading depression — one mechanism involved in the pathogenesis of migraine headache. Magnesium is also a GABA agonist. Magnesium affects the function of serotonin receptors, influences platelet aggregation, and regulates the synthesis and release of several neurotransmitters. These mechanisms explain magnesium’s benefit for migraine, as well as the potential for magnesium to improve sleep and other aspects of neurological health.[39][40]

    Does low magnesium lead to muscle cramps?

    It’s a widely held belief that imbalances in electrolytes — in particular magnesium — may be involved in the etiology of muscle cramps — sudden involuntary contractions of one or more muscles that lead to sharp pains. However, the theory that muscle cramps are related to electrolyte or water imbalances has been questioned, although some evidence suggests that exercise-associated muscle cramps may have their origin in excessive losses of water and sodium during exercise.[43]

    The idea that low magnesium levels play a role in muscle cramping comes from evidence that reduced magnesium levels are correlated to higher rates of muscle cramping during pregnancy[44][45] and in people who experience leg cramps at night.[46] Severe magnesium deficiency has also been associated with a higher incidence of muscle pain and cramping.[47][48]

    However, a meta-analysis published in 2020 concluded that it is unlikely that magnesium supplementation in any form can reduce idiopathic nocturnal or exercise-induced muscle cramps. The available evidence on a reduction in pregnancy-associated muscle cramps was conflicting.[49]

    Other FAQs
    How can you increase testosterone naturally?
    Quick answer:

    When it comes to increasing your testosterone, quality sleep, physical activity, and weight management come first. A few supplements can help sustain healthy testosterone levels, but most supplements marketed as testosterone boosters don't work, though some can make you believe they do by boosting your libido.

    Testosterone is an androgen, a male sex hormone, though women need it too. In men, low testosterone has been associated with low libido[103] and poor health outcomes, such as the development of metabolic syndrome.[104] In men and women, low testosterone has been associated with depression.[105][106]

    Middle-aged[107] and older[108] men see their testosterone levels decrease by 0.4% to 1.6% per year, and many are the men who experience lower-than-average levels even in their 30s.[109] Fortunately, quality sleep, physical activity, weight management, magnesium, zinc, and vitamin D can all help sustain healthy testosterone levels.

    image

    Lifestyle

    To optimize your testosterone levels, you don’t only need the proper amounts of vitamins and minerals; you also need to sleep well, exercise, and keep a healthy weight.

    1. Sleep

    Lack of sleep causes numerous health issues. Notably, it decreases testosterone production[110][111][112][113][114] and facilitates fat gain[115] (and we’ll see that fat gain itself can impair testosterone production). Getting enough quality sleep is so important that we will be publishing an article on that soon.

    2. Physical activity

    Resistance training can raise testosterone levels for 15–30 minutes post-exercise.[116][117] More importantly, it can benefit testosterone production in the long run by improving body composition and reducing insulin resistance.[116]

    Overtraining, however, is counterproductive. Prolonged endurance exercise especially can cause your testosterone to drop.[118][119] Ensuring adequate recovery time will help you receive the full benefits of physical activity.

    3. Weight management

    Weight gain and the associated chronic diseases, such as cardiovascular disease and type 2 diabetes,[120][121][122] are strongly linked to decreases in testosterone, particularly in middle-aged and older men.

    If you gain weight (as fat), your testosterone production drops. Fortunately, if you lose weight, your testosterone production can climb back up.

    image Adapted from Grossmann and Matsumoto. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2017.[123]

    As this figure shows, observational studies have seen consistent results: in people who are overweight or obese, the greater the weight loss, the greater the testosterone increase.[120]

    These results have been echoed in clinical trials. A meta-analysis of 24 RCTs looked at weight loss caused by diet or bariatric surgery:[124] In the diet studies, the average 9.8% weight loss was linked to a testosterone increase of 2.9 nmol/L (84 ng/dL). In the bariatric-surgery studies, the average 32% weight loss was linked to a testosterone increase of 8.7 nmol/L (251 ng/dL).

    You need not lose huge amounts of weight to see a bump in testosterone levels, either: a 5% loss in weight can increase total testosterone by 2 nmol/L (58 ng/dL).[125]

    Quality sleep, physical activity, and weight management support healthy testosterone levels, and they’re synergistic: If you lack sleep, you find it harder to exercise and easier to gain fat. If you exercise, you find it easier to sleep and to keep a healthy weight. If your weight is healthy, you find it easier to exercise and easier to sleep.

    If you want to know more about the lifestyle-testosterone connection, check out our infographic and article here.

    Supplements

    Only a few supplements have been shown to benefit testosterone production. Among those, the evidence mostly supports vitamin D and zinc, followed by magnesium. Two caveats should be kept in mind, however:

    • Supplementing with a vitamin or mineral is likely to help you only if you suffer from a deficiency or an insufficiency in this vitamin or mineral.

    • Correcting a deficiency or an insufficiency is more likely to raise your testosterone levels if they are low.

    1. Vitamin D

    Vitamin D helps regulate testosterone levels.[126][127] Ideally, you would produce all the vitamin D you need through sunlight exposure, but if you live far from the equator, have dark skin, or simply spend most of your time inside, you may need to complement your own production with the help of foods or supplements.

    Serum 25(OH)D concentrations

    image

    In Canada and the United States, the Recommended Daily Allowance (RDA) for vitamin D falls between 400 and 800 IU (International Units).[128] These amounts, which have been criticized as too low by some,[129][130] are attainable from only a few food sources, which is why vitamin D has become a popular supplement.

    Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDAs) for vitamin D (IU*)

    AGEMALEFEMALEPREGNANTLACTATING
    0–12 months400**400**——
    1–13 years600600——
    14–18 years600600600600
    19–50 years600600600600
    51–70 years600600——
    >70 years800800——

    * 40 IU = 1 mcg | ** Adequate intake (AI)
    Reference: Institute of Medicine. Dietary Reference Intakes for Adequacy: Calcium and Vitamin D (chapter 5 in Dietary Reference Intakes for Calcium and Vitamin D. The National Academies Press. 2011. DOI:10.17226/13050)

    2. Zinc

    Zinc deficiency can hinder testosterone production.[131][132] Like magnesium, zinc is lost through sweat,[133] so athletes and other people who sweat a lot are more likely to be deficient. Although dietary zinc is mostly found in animal products, zinc-rich foods include some grains and nuts.

    Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) for zinc (mg)

    AGEMALEFEMALEPREGNANTLACTATING
    0–6 months2*2*——
    7–12 months33——
    1–3 years33——
    4–8 years55——
    9–13 years88——
    14–18 years1191213
    19+ years1181112

    * Adequate Intake (AI) Reference: Institute of Medicine. Zinc (chapter 12 in Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin A, Vitamin K, Arsenic, Boron, Chromium, Copper, Iodine, Iron, Manganese, Molybdenum, Nickel, Silicon, Vanadium, and Zinc. The National Academies Press. 2001. DOI:10.17226/10026)

    Consuming much more than your RDA[134] can be harmful. In the short term, high doses can cause nausea[135] and vomiting.[136] In the long term, they can lead to a copper deficiency.[137][138]

    3. Magnesium

    In males with low magnesium levels and low testosterone levels, an increase in magnesium intake can translate into an increase in testosterone production,[139] both directly and (since one of magnesium’s functions in your body is to help convert vitamin D into its active form[140]) indirectly.

    While more common in the older population,[141] magnesium deficiency isn’t unknown in younger people (notably athletes,[142] since, link zinc, magnesium is lost through sweat[133][143][144]). Yet getting your RDA should be easy: magnesium-rich foods are numerous and can fit all kinds of diets.

    Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) for magnesium (mg)

    AGEMALEFEMALEPREGNANTLACTATING
    0–6 months30*30*——
    7–12 months75*75*——
    1–3 years8080——
    4–8 years130130——
    9–13 years240240——
    14–18 years410360400360
    19-30 years400310350310
    31–50 years420320360320
    >51 years420320——

    * Adequate intake (AI)
    Reference: Institute of Medicine. Magnesium (chapter 6 in Dietary Reference Intakes for Calcium, Phosphorus, Magnesium, Vitamin D, and Fluoride. The National Academies Press. 1997. [35])

    If you still feel the need to supplement, keep in mind that supplemental magnesium is more likely than dietary magnesium to cause adverse effects, which is why the FDA fixed at 350 mg the Tolerable Upper Intake Level for magnesium supplementation in adults. Also, you may want to avoid magnesium oxide: it has poor bioavailability (rats absorbed only 15% in one study,[145] and humans only 4% in another[146]) and can cause intestinal discomfort and diarrhea.

    Overhyped supplements

    Numerous products are advertised as testosterone boosters, but the vast majority don’t work, though some can make you believe they do by boosting your libido. Maca, for instance, can enhance libido without affecting testosterone.[147][148][149][150]

    Maybe the most popular “testosterone booster” is D-aspartic acid (DAA, or D-aspartate). DAA did increase testosterone levels in two studies, one that used 2.66 g/day[151] and the other 3.12 g/day,[152] but two later studies found no increase with 3 g/day,[153][154] and the latest even noted a decrease with 6 g/day.[153]

    Eat a healthy, balanced diet, so as to avoid nutritional deficiencies. If your testosterone levels are low, pay attention to your intakes of vitamin D, zinc, and magnesium. Be skeptical of supplements marketed as testosterone boosters; there’s a good chance the only thing these supplements will boost is their manufacturers’ bottom lines.

    Bottom line

    The interventions discussed in this article will work best for men with low testosterone, but they can also help men with normal testosterone to sustain their levels, year after year.

    Supplements can help, but they can’t replace a healthy lifestyle. In order to optimize your testosterone production, make sure you get enough quality sleep on a daily basis, incorporate some resistance training into your workout program, and monitor your weight.

    Try to get enough vitamin D, zinc, and magnesium through your diet. However, if dietary changes prove insufficient, supplementation can help make up the difference.

    Not all testosterone deficiencies can be fixed through lifestyle or supplement interventions. It may be prudent to speak with your doctor if the options discussed above do not yield sufficient results.

    Update History

    References

    1. ^Walker AF, Marakis G, Christie S, Byng MMg citrate found more bioavailable than other Mg preparations in a randomised, double-blind studyMagnes Res.(2003 Sep)
    2. ^Ranade VV, Somberg JCBioavailability and pharmacokinetics of magnesium after administration of magnesium salts to humansAm J Ther.(2001 Sep-Oct)
    3. ^Gröber U, Werner T, Vormann J, Kisters KMyth or Reality-Transdermal Magnesium?Nutrients.(2017-Jul-28)
    4. ^Office of Dietary Supplements - Magnesium
    5. ^Siener R, Hesse AInfluence of a mixed and a vegetarian diet on urinary magnesium excretion and concentration.Br J Nutr.(1995-May)
    6. ^GRAHAM LA, CAESAR JJ, BURGEN ASGastrointestinal absorption and excretion of Mg 28 in man.Metabolism.(1960-Jul)
    7. ^Siener R, Jahnen A, Hesse AInfluence of a mineral water rich in calcium, magnesium and bicarbonate on urine composition and the risk of calcium oxalate crystallization.Eur J Clin Nutr.(2004-Feb)
    8. ^Jeroen H F de Baaij, Joost G J Hoenderop, René J M BindelsMagnesium in man: implications for health and diseasePhysiol Rev.(2015 Jan)
    9. ^James J DiNicolantonio, James H O'Keefe, William WilsonSubclinical magnesium deficiency: a principal driver of cardiovascular disease and a public health crisisOpen Heart.(2018 Jan 13)
    10. ^Nicola Veronese, Ligia J Dominguez, Damiano Pizzol, Jacopo Demurtas, Lee Smith, Mario BarbagalloOral Magnesium Supplementation for Treating Glucose Metabolism Parameters in People with or at Risk of Diabetes: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Double-Blind Randomized Controlled TrialsNutrients.(2021 Nov 15)
    11. ^Verma H, Garg REffect of magnesium supplementation on type 2 diabetes associated cardiovascular risk factors: a systematic review and meta-analysisJ Hum Nutr Diet.(2017 Oct)
    12. ^Qu Q, Rong R, Yu JEffect of magnesium supplementation on pregnancy outcome in gestational diabetes mellitus patients: A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials.Food Sci Nutr.(2022-Oct)
    13. ^Guerrero-Romero F, Tamez-Perez HE, González-González G, Salinas-Martínez AM, Montes-Villarreal J, Treviño-Ortiz JH, Rodríguez-Morán MOral magnesium supplementation improves insulin sensitivity in non-diabetic subjects with insulin resistance. A double-blind placebo-controlled randomized trial.Diabetes Metab.(2004-Jun)
    14. ^Guerrero-Romero F, Rodríguez-Morán MMagnesium improves the beta-cell function to compensate variation of insulin sensitivity: double-blind, randomized clinical trialEur J Clin Invest.(2011 Apr)
    15. ^Mooren FC, Krüger K, Völker K, Golf SW, Wadepuhl M, Kraus AOral magnesium supplementation reduces insulin resistance in non-diabetic subjects - a double-blind, placebo-controlled, randomized trialDiabetes Obes Metab.(2011 Mar)
    16. ^Rodríguez-Morán M, Guerrero-Romero FOral magnesium supplementation improves insulin sensitivity and metabolic control in type 2 diabetic subjects: a randomized double-blind controlled trialDiabetes Care.(2003 Apr)
    17. ^Xiaoqing Tan, Yi HuangMagnesium supplementation for glycemic status in women with gestational diabetes: a systematic review and meta-analysisGynecol Endocrinol.(2021 Dec 15)
    18. ^Sacks FM, Willett WC, Smith A, Brown LE, Rosner B, Moore TJEffect on blood pressure of potassium, calcium, and magnesium in women with low habitual intakeHypertension.(1998 Jan)
    19. ^Guerrero-Romero F, Rodríguez-Morán MThe effect of lowering blood pressure by magnesium supplementation in diabetic hypertensive adults with low serum magnesium levels: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trialJ Hum Hypertens.(2009 Apr)
    20. ^Lee S, Park HK, Son SP, Lee CW, Kim IJ, Kim HJEffects of oral magnesium supplementation on insulin sensitivity and blood pressure in normo-magnesemic nondiabetic overweight Korean adultsNutr Metab Cardiovasc Dis.(2009 Dec)
    21. ^Hatzistavri LS, Sarafidis PA, Georgianos PI, Tziolas IM, Aroditis CP, Zebekakis PE, Pikilidou MI, Lasaridis ANOral magnesium supplementation reduces ambulatory blood pressure in patients with mild hypertensionAm J Hypertens.(2009 Oct)
    22. ^Kawano Y, Matsuoka H, Takishita S, Omae TEffects of magnesium supplementation in hypertensive patients: assessment by office, home, and ambulatory blood pressuresHypertension.(1998 Aug)
    23. ^Xi Zhang, Yufeng Li, Liana C Del Gobbo, Andrea Rosanoff, Jiawei Wang, Wen Zhang, Yiqing SongEffects of Magnesium Supplementation on Blood Pressure: A Meta-Analysis of Randomized Double-Blind Placebo-Controlled TrialsHypertension.(2016 Aug)
    24. ^Daniel T Dibaba, Pengcheng Xun, Yiqing Song, Andrea Rosanoff, Michael Shechter, Ka HeThe effect of magnesium supplementation on blood pressure in individuals with insulin resistance, prediabetes, or noncommunicable chronic diseases: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trialsAm J Clin Nutr.(2017 Sep)
    25. ^Asbaghi O, Hosseini R, Boozari B, Ghaedi E, Kashkooli S, Moradi SThe Effects of Magnesium Supplementation on Blood Pressure and Obesity Measure Among Type 2 Diabetes Patient: a Systematic Review and Meta-analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials.Biol Trace Elem Res.(2021-Feb)
    26. ^Xu L, Li X, Wang X, Xu MEffects of magnesium supplementation on improving hyperglycemia, hypercholesterolemia, and hypertension in type 2 diabetes: A pooled analysis of 24 randomized controlled trials.Front Nutr.(2022)
    27. ^Köseoglu E, Talaslioglu A, Gönül AS, Kula MThe effects of magnesium prophylaxis in migraine without auraMagnes Res.(2008 Jun)
    28. ^Veronese N, Demurtas J, Pesolillo G, Celotto S, Barnini T, Calusi G, Caruso MG, Notarnicola M, Reddavide R, Stubbs B, Solmi M, Maggi S, Vaona A, Firth J, Smith L, Koyanagi A, Dominguez L, Barbagallo MMagnesium and health outcomes: an umbrella review of systematic reviews and meta-analyses of observational and intervention studiesEur J Nutr.(2019 Jan 25)
    29. ^Hsiao-Yean Chiu, Tu-Hsueh Yeh, Yin-Cheng Huang, Pin-Yuan ChenEffects of Intravenous and Oral Magnesium on Reducing Migraine: A Meta-analysis of Randomized Controlled TrialsPain Physician.(2016 Jan)
    30. ^Quaranta S, Buscaglia MA, Meroni MG, Colombo E, Cella SPilot study of the efficacy and safety of a modified-release magnesium 250 mg tablet (Sincromag) for the treatment of premenstrual syndromeClin Drug Investig.(2007)
    31. ^Walker AF, De Souza MC, Vickers MF, Abeyasekera S, Collins ML, Trinca LAMagnesium supplementation alleviates premenstrual symptoms of fluid retentionJ Womens Health.(1998 Nov)
    32. ^De Souza MC, Walker AF, Robinson PA, Bolland KA synergistic effect of a daily supplement for 1 month of 200 mg magnesium plus 50 mg vitamin B6 for the relief of anxiety-related premenstrual symptoms: a randomized, double-blind, crossover studyJ Womens Health Gend Based Med.(2000 Mar)
    33. ^R SwaminathanMagnesium metabolism and its disordersClin Biochem Rev.(2003 May)
    34. ^de Lordes Lima M, Cruz T, Pousada JC, Rodrigues LE, Barbosa K, Canguçu VThe effect of magnesium supplementation in increasing doses on the control of type 2 diabetesDiabetes Care.(1998 May)
    35. ^Institute of Medicine (US) Standing Committee on the Scientific Evaluation of Dietary Reference IntakesDietary Reference Intakes for Calcium, Phosphorus, Magnesium, Vitamin D, and Fluoride
    36. ^Forrest H NielsenMagnesium deficiency and increased inflammation: current perspectivesJ Inflamm Res.(2018 Jan 18)
    37. ^Krasimir KostovEffects of Magnesium Deficiency on Mechanisms of Insulin Resistance in Type 2 Diabetes: Focusing on the Processes of Insulin Secretion and SignalingInt J Mol Sci.(2019 Mar 18)
    38. ^Ligia Dominguez, Nicola Veronese, Mario BarbagalloMagnesium and Hypertension in Old AgeNutrients.(2020 Dec 31)
    39. ^Sanam Dolati, Reza Rikhtegar, Amir Mehdizadeh, Mehdi YousefiThe Role of Magnesium in Pathophysiology and Migraine TreatmentBiol Trace Elem Res.(2020 Aug)
    40. ^Mauskop A, Varughese JWhy all migraine patients should be treated with magnesium.J Neural Transm (Vienna).(2012-May)
    41. ^Ebben M, Lequerica A, Spielman AEffects of pyridoxine on dreaming: a preliminary studyPercept Mot Skills.(2002 Feb)
    42. ^De Souza MC, Walker AF, Robinson PA, Bolland KA synergistic effect of a daily supplement for 1 month of 200 mg magnesium plus 50 mg vitamin B6 for the relief of anxiety-related premenstrual symptoms: a randomized, double-blind, crossover studyJ Womens Health Gend Based Med.(2000 Mar)
    43. ^BergeronMuscle Cramps during Exercise-Is It Fatigue or Electrolyte Deficit?Current Sports Medicine Reports.(2008-08)
    44. ^Hantoushzadeh S, Jafarabadi M, Khazardoust SSerum magnesium levels, muscle cramps, and preterm labor.Int J Gynaecol Obstet.(2007-Aug)
    45. ^Kovács L, Molnár BG, Huhn E, Bódis LMagnesium substitution in pregnancy. A prospective, randomized double-blind study.Geburtshilfe Frauenheilkd.(1988-Aug)
    46. ^Garrison SR, Birmingham CL, Koehler BE, McCollom RA, Khan KMThe effect of magnesium infusion on rest cramps: randomized controlled trial.J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci.(2011-Jun)
    47. ^Triger DR, Joekes AMSevere muscle cramp due to acute hypomagnesaemia in haemodialysis.Br Med J.(1969-Jun-28)
    48. ^Bilbey DL, Prabhakaran VMMuscle cramps and magnesium deficiency: case reports.Can Fam Physician.(1996-Jul)
    49. ^Scott R Garrison, Christina S Korownyk, Michael R Kolber, G Michael Allan, Vijaya M Musini, Ravneet K Sekhon, Nicolas DugréMagnesium for skeletal muscle crampsCochrane Database Syst Rev.(2020 Sep 21)
    50. ^Slutsky I, Abumaria N, Wu LJ, Huang C, Zhang L, Li B, Zhao X, Govindarajan A, Zhao MG, Zhuo M, Tonegawa S, Liu GEnhancement of learning and memory by elevating brain magnesium.Neuron.(2010-Jan-28)
    51. ^Abumaria N, Yin B, Zhang L, Li XY, Chen T, Descalzi G, Zhao L, Ahn M, Luo L, Ran C, Zhuo M, Liu GEffects of elevation of brain magnesium on fear conditioning, fear extinction, and synaptic plasticity in the infralimbic prefrontal cortex and lateral amygdala.J Neurosci.(2011-Oct-19)
    52. ^Fine KD, Santa Ana CA, Porter JL, Fordtran JSIntestinal absorption of magnesium from food and supplements.J Clin Invest.(1991-Aug)
    53. ^Schwartz R, Spencer H, Welsh JJMagnesium absorption in human subjects from leafy vegetables, intrinsically labeled with stable 26Mg.Am J Clin Nutr.(1984-Apr)
    54. ^Bohn T, Davidsson L, Walczyk T, Hurrell RFFractional magnesium absorption is significantly lower in human subjects from a meal served with an oxalate-rich vegetable, spinach, as compared with a meal served with kale, a vegetable with a low oxalate content.Br J Nutr.(2004-Apr)
    55. ^Bohn T, Davidsson L, Walczyk T, Hurrell RFPhytic acid added to white-wheat bread inhibits fractional apparent magnesium absorption in humans.Am J Clin Nutr.(2004-Mar)
    56. ^Jasmine Mah, Tyler PitreOral magnesium supplementation for insomnia in older adults: a Systematic Review & Meta-AnalysisBMC Complement Med Ther.(2021 Apr 17)
    57. ^Ring et al.Dietary Supplements for InsomniaCurr Sleep Medicine Rep.(2017-12-01)
    58. ^D Chollet, P Franken, Y Raffin, A Malafosse, J Widmer, M TaftiBlood and brain magnesium in inbred mice and their correlation with sleep qualityAm J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol.(2000 Dec)
    59. ^Al Wadee Z, Ooi SL, Pak SCSerum Magnesium Levels in Patients with Obstructive Sleep Apnoea: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.Biomedicines.(2022 Sep 14)
    60. ^Yijia Zhang, Cheng Chen, Liping Lu, Kristen L Knutson, Mercedes R Carnethon, Alyce D Fly, Juhua Luo, David M Haas, James M Shikany, Ka KaheAssociation of magnesium intake with sleep duration and sleep quality: findings from the CARDIA studySleep.(2021 Nov 20)
    61. ^Saba S, Faizi F, Sepandi M, Nehrir BEffect of short-term magnesium supplementation on anxiety, depression and sleep quality in patients after open-heart surgery.Magnes Res.(2022-Apr-01)
    62. ^Behnood Abbasi, Masud Kimiagar, Khosro Sadeghniiat, Minoo M Shirazi, Mehdi Hedayati, Bahram RashidkhaniThe effect of magnesium supplementation on primary insomnia in elderly: A double-blind placebo-controlled clinical trialJ Res Med Sci.(2012 Dec)
    63. ^Gholizadeh-Moghaddam M, Ghasemi-Tehrani H, Askari G, Jaripur M, Clark CCT, Rouhani MHEffect of magnesium supplementation in improving hyperandrogenism, hirsutism, and sleep quality in women with polycystic ovary syndrome: A randomized, placebo-controlled clinical trial.Health Sci Rep.(2023-Jan)
    64. ^Arman Arab, Nahid Rafie, Reza Amani, Fatemeh ShiraniThe Role of Magnesium in Sleep Health: a Systematic Review of Available LiteratureBiol Trace Elem Res.(2022 Feb 19)
    65. ^Shepherd E, Salam RA, Manhas D, Synnes A, Middleton P, Makrides M, Crowther CAAntenatal magnesium sulphate and adverse neonatal outcomes: A systematic review and meta-analysis.PLoS Med.(2019 Dec)
    66. ^Makrides M, Crosby DD, Bain E, Crowther CAMagnesium supplementation in pregnancy.Cochrane Database Syst Rev.(2014 Apr 3)
    67. ^Luo L, Zhang Y, Wang H, Chen D, Li LThe efficacy of magnesium supplementation for gestational diabetes: A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials.Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol.(2024-Feb)
    68. ^Yuan J, Yu Y, Zhu T, Lin X, Jing X, Zhang JOral Magnesium Supplementation for the Prevention of Preeclampsia: a Meta-analysis or Randomized Controlled Trials.Biol Trace Elem Res.(2022-Aug)
    69. ^Luo L, Zhou K, Zhang J, Xu L, Yin WInterventions for leg cramps in pregnancy.Cochrane Database Syst Rev.(2020-Dec-04)
    70. ^Crowther CA, Middleton PF, Voysey M, Askie L, Duley L, Pryde PG, Marret S, Doyle LW, AMICABLE GroupAssessing the neuroprotective benefits for babies of antenatal magnesium sulphate: An individual participant data meta-analysis.PLoS Med.(2017 Oct)
    71. ^Islam MR, Ahmed MU, Mitu SA, Islam MS, Rahman GK, Qusar MM, Hasnat AComparative analysis of serum zinc, copper, manganese, iron, calcium, and magnesium level and complexity of interelement relations in generalized anxiety disorder patients.Biol Trace Elem Res.(2013 Jul)
    72. ^Bahramy P, Mohammad-Alizadeh-Charandabi S, Ramezani-Nardin F, Mirghafourvand MSerum Levels of Vitamin D, Calcium, Magnesium, and Copper, and their Relations with Mental Health and Sexual Function in Pregnant Iranian Adolescents.Biol Trace Elem Res.(2020 Dec)
    73. ^Kirov GK, Birch NJ, Steadman P, Ramsey RGPlasma magnesium levels in a population of psychiatric patients: correlations with symptoms.Neuropsychobiology.(1994)
    74. ^Anjom-Shoae J, Sadeghi O, Hassanzadeh Keshteli A, Afshar H, Esmaillzadeh A, Adibi PThe association between dietary intake of magnesium and psychiatric disorders among Iranian adults: a cross-sectional study.Br J Nutr.(2018 Sep)
    75. ^Jacka FN, Maes M, Pasco JA, Williams LJ, Berk MNutrient intakes and the common mental disorders in women.J Affect Disord.(2012 Dec 1)
    76. ^Jacka FN, Overland S, Stewart R, Tell GS, Bjelland I, Mykletun AAssociation between magnesium intake and depression and anxiety in community-dwelling adults: the Hordaland Health Study.Aust N Z J Psychiatry.(2009 Jan)
    77. ^Noah L, Dye L, Bois De Fer B, Mazur A, Pickering G, Pouteau EEffect of magnesium and vitamin B6 supplementation on mental health and quality of life in stressed healthy adults: Post-hoc analysis of a randomised controlled trial.Stress Health.(2021-Dec)
    78. ^Noah L, Pickering G, Mazur A, Dubray C, Hitier S, Dualé C, Pouteau EImpact of magnesium supplementation, in combination with vitamin B6, on stress and magnesium status: secondary data from a randomized controlled trial.Magnes Res.(2020 Aug 1)
    79. ^Etienne Pouteau, Marmar Kabir-Ahmadi, Lionel Noah, Andre Mazur, Louise Dye, Juliane Hellhammer, Gisele Pickering, Claude DubraySuperiority of magnesium and vitamin B6 over magnesium alone on severe stress in healthy adults with low magnesemia: A randomized, single-blind clinical trialPLoS One.(2018 Dec 18)
    80. ^Tarleton EK, Littenberg B, MacLean CD, Kennedy AG, Daley CRole of magnesium supplementation in the treatment of depression: A randomized clinical trial.PLoS One.(2017)
    81. ^Fard FE, Mirghafourvand M, Mohammad-Alizadeh Charandabi S, Farshbaf-Khalili A, Javadzadeh Y, Asgharian HEffects of zinc and magnesium supplements on postpartum depression and anxiety: A randomized controlled clinical trialWomen Health.(2017 Oct)
    82. ^Botturi A, Ciappolino V, Delvecchio G, Boscutti A, Viscardi B, Brambilla PThe Role and the Effect of Magnesium in Mental Disorders: A Systematic Review.Nutrients.(2020-Jun-03)
    83. ^Boyle NB, Lawton C, Dye LThe Effects of Magnesium Supplementation on Subjective Anxiety and Stress-A Systematic ReviewNutrients.(2017 Apr 26)
    84. ^Worona-Dibner L, Vázquez-Frias R, Valdez-Chávez L, Verdiguel-Oyola MEfficacy, safety, and acceptability of polyethylene glycol 3350 without electrolytes vs magnesium hydroxide in functional constipation in children from six months to eighteen years of age: A controlled clinical trial.Rev Gastroenterol Mex (Engl Ed).(2023 Apr-Jun)
    85. ^Hassanein SMA, Deifallah SM, Bastawy HAEfficacy of oral magnesium therapy in the treatment of chronic constipation in spastic cerebral palsy children: a randomized controlled trial.World J Pediatr.(2021 Feb)
    86. ^Loening-Baucke V, Pashankar DSA randomized, prospective, comparison study of polyethylene glycol 3350 without electrolytes and milk of magnesia for children with constipation and fecal incontinence.Pediatrics.(2006 Aug)
    87. ^Kang SJ, Cho YS, Lee TH, Kim SE, Ryu HS, Kim JW, Park SY, Lee YJ, Shin JE, Constipation Research Group of the Korean Society of Neurogastroenterology and MotilityMedical Management of Constipation in Elderly Patients: Systematic Review.J Neurogastroenterol Motil.(2021 Oct 30)
    88. ^Ramkumar D, Rao SSEfficacy and safety of traditional medical therapies for chronic constipation: systematic review.Am J Gastroenterol.(2005 Apr)
    89. ^Bridget Candy, Louise Jones, Philip J Larkin, Victoria Vickerstaff, Adrian Tookman, Patrick StoneLaxatives for the management of constipation in people receiving palliative careCochrane Database Syst Rev.(2015 May 13)
    90. ^Morishita D, Tomita T, Mori S, Kimura T, Oshima T, Fukui H, Miwa HSenna Versus Magnesium Oxide for the Treatment of Chronic Constipation: A Randomized, Placebo-Controlled Trial.Am J Gastroenterol.(2021-Jan-01)
    91. ^Moradian ST, Ghiasi MS, Mohamadpour A, Siavash YOral magnesium supplementation reduces the incidence of gastrointestinal complications following cardiac surgery: a randomized clinical trial.Magnes Res.(2017 Feb 1)
    92. ^Kistemaker KRJ, Sijani F, Brinkman DJ, de Graeff A, Burchell GL, Steegers MAH, van Zuylen LPharmacological prevention and treatment of opioid-induced constipation in cancer patients: A systematic review and meta-analysis.Cancer Treat Rev.(2024 Apr)
    93. ^Onor IO, Hill LM, Famodimu MM, Coleman MR, Huynh CH, Beyl RA, Payne CJ, Johnston EK, Okogbaa JI, Gillard CJ, Sarpong DF, Borghol A, Okpechi SC, Norbert I, Sanne SE, Guillory SGAssociation of Serum Magnesium with Blood Pressure in Patients with Hypertensive Crises: A Retrospective Cross-Sectional Study.Nutrients.(2021 Nov 24)
    94. ^Chen G, Li Y, Deng G, Shrestha S, Chen F, Wei Y, Huang Z, Pan J, Zhang ZAssociations of Plasma Copper, Magnesium, and Calcium Levels with Blood Pressure in Children: a Cross-sectional Study.Biol Trace Elem Res.(2021 Mar)
    95. ^Guerrero-Romero F, Rodríguez-Morán M, Hernández-Ronquillo G, Gómez-Díaz R, Pizano-Zarate ML, Wacher NH, Mondragón-González R, Simental-Mendia LE, Network of Childhood Obesity of the Mexican Social Security InstituteLow Serum Magnesium Levels and Its Association with High Blood Pressure in Children.J Pediatr.(2016 Jan)
    96. ^Ma J, Folsom AR, Melnick SL, Eckfeldt JH, Sharrett AR, Nabulsi AA, Hutchinson RG, Metcalf PAAssociations of serum and dietary magnesium with cardiovascular disease, hypertension, diabetes, insulin, and carotid arterial wall thickness: the ARIC study. Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities Study.J Clin Epidemiol.(1995 Jul)
    97. ^Zhao B, Deng H, Li B, Chen L, Zou F, Hu L, Wei Y, Zhang WAssociation of magnesium consumption with type 2 diabetes and glucose metabolism: A systematic review and pooled study with trial sequential analysis.Diabetes Metab Res Rev.(2020 Mar)
    98. ^Cheteu Wabo TM, Wu X, Sun C, Boah M, Ngo Nkondjock VR, Kosgey Cheruiyot J, Amporfro Adjei D, Shah IAssociation of dietary calcium, magnesium, sodium, and potassium intake and hypertension: a study on an 8-year dietary intake data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey.Nutr Res Pract.(2022 Feb)
    99. ^Choi MK, Bae YJAssociation of Magnesium Intake with High Blood Pressure in Korean Adults: Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2007-2009.PLoS One.(2015)
    100. ^Rosanoff A, Costello RB, Johnson GHEffectively Prescribing Oral Magnesium Therapy for Hypertension: A Categorized Systematic Review of 49 Clinical Trials.Nutrients.(2021 Jan 10)
    101. ^Rosanoff A, Plesset MROral magnesium supplements decrease high blood pressure (SBP>155 mmHg) in hypertensive subjects on anti-hypertensive medications: a targeted meta-analysis.Magnes Res.(2013 Jul-Sep)
    102. ^L Kass, J Weekes, L CarpenterEffect of magnesium supplementation on blood pressure: a meta-analysisEur J Clin Nutr.(2012 Apr)
    103. ^Travison TG, Morley JE, Araujo AB, O'Donnell AB, McKinlay JBThe relationship between libido and testosterone levels in aging menJ Clin Endocrinol Metab.(2006 Jul)
    104. ^Chrysohoou C, Panagiotakos D, Pitsavos C, Siasos G, Oikonomou E, Varlas J, Patialiakas A, Lazaros G, Psaltopoulou T, Zaromitidou M, Kourkouti P, Tousoulis D, Stefanadis CLow total testosterone levels are associated with the metabolic syndrome in elderly men: the role of body weight, lipids, insulin resistance, and inflammation; the Ikaria studyRev Diabet Stud.(2013 Spring)
    105. ^Westley CJ, Amdur RL, Irwig MSHigh Rates of Depression and Depressive Symptoms among Men Referred for Borderline Testosterone LevelsJ Sex Med.(2015 Aug)
    106. ^Giltay EJ, Enter D, Zitman FG, Penninx BW, van Pelt J, Spinhoven P, Roelofs KSalivary testosterone: associations with depression, anxiety disorders, and antidepressant use in a large cohort studyJ Psychosom Res.(2012 Mar)
    107. ^Feldman HA, Longcope C, Derby CA, Johannes CB, Araujo AB, Coviello AD, Bremner WJ, McKinlay JBAge trends in the level of serum testosterone and other hormones in middle-aged men: longitudinal results from the Massachusetts male aging studyJ Clin Endocrinol Metab.(2002 Feb)
    108. ^Wu FC, Tajar A, Pye SR, Silman AJ, Finn JD, O'Neill TW, Bartfai G, Casanueva F, Forti G, Giwercman A, Huhtaniemi IT, Kula K, Punab M, Boonen S, Vanderschueren D, European Male Aging Study GroupHypothalamic-pituitary-testicular axis disruptions in older men are differentially linked to age and modifiable risk factors: the European Male Aging StudyJ Clin Endocrinol Metab.(2008 Jul)
    109. ^Handelsman DJ, Yeap B, Flicker L, Martin S, Wittert GA, Ly LPAge-specific population centiles for androgen status in menEur J Endocrinol.(2015 Dec)
    110. ^Cote KA, McCormick CM, Geniole SN, Renn RP, MacAulay SDSleep deprivation lowers reactive aggression and testosterone in menBiol Psychol.(2013 Feb)
    111. ^Leproult R, Van Cauter EEffect of 1 week of sleep restriction on testosterone levels in young healthy menJAMA.(2011 Jun 1)
    112. ^Penev PDAssociation between sleep and morning testosterone levels in older menSleep.(2007 Apr)
    113. ^González-Santos MR, Gajá-Rodríguez OV, Alonso-Uriarte R, Sojo-Aranda I, Cortés-Gallegos VSleep deprivation and adaptive hormonal responses of healthy menArch Androl.(1989)
    114. ^Cortés-Gallegos V, Castañeda G, Alonso R, Sojo I, Carranco A, Cervantes C, Parra ASleep deprivation reduces circulating androgens in healthy menArch Androl.(1983 Mar)
    115. ^Nedeltcheva AV, Kilkus JM, Imperial J, Schoeller DA, Penev PDInsufficient sleep undermines dietary efforts to reduce adiposityAnn Intern Med.(2010 Oct 5)
    116. ^O'Leary CB, Hackney ACAcute and chronic effects of resistance exercise on the testosterone and cortisol responses in obese males: a systematic reviewPhysiol Res.(2014)
    117. ^Kraemer WJ, Ratamess NAHormonal responses and adaptations to resistance exercise and trainingSports Med.(2005)
    118. ^Daly W, Seegers CA, Rubin DA, Dobridge JD, Hackney ACRelationship between stress hormones and testosterone with prolonged endurance exerciseEur J Appl Physiol.(2005 Jan)
    119. ^Hackney AC, Aggon EChronic Low Testosterone Levels in Endurance Trained Men: The Exercise- Hypogonadal Male ConditionJ Biochem Physiol.(2018)
    120. ^Grossmann MLow testosterone in men with type 2 diabetes: significance and treatmentJ Clin Endocrinol Metab.(2011 Aug)
    121. ^Tajar A, Forti G, O'Neill TW, Lee DM, Silman AJ, Finn JD, Bartfai G, Boonen S, Casanueva FF, Giwercman A, Han TS, Kula K, Labrie F, Lean ME, Pendleton N, Punab M, Vanderschueren D, Huhtaniemi IT, Wu FC, EMAS GroupCharacteristics of secondary, primary, and compensated hypogonadism in aging men: evidence from the European Male Ageing StudyJ Clin Endocrinol Metab.(2010 Apr)
    122. ^Hall SA, Esche GR, Araujo AB, Travison TG, Clark RV, Williams RE, McKinlay JBCorrelates of low testosterone and symptomatic androgen deficiency in a population-based sampleJ Clin Endocrinol Metab.(2008 Oct)
    123. ^Grossmann M, Matsumoto AMA Perspective on Middle-Aged and Older Men With Functional Hypogonadism: Focus on Holistic ManagementJ Clin Endocrinol Metab.(2017 Mar 1)
    124. ^Corona G, Rastrelli G, Monami M, Saad F, Luconi M, Lucchese M, Facchiano E, Sforza A, Forti G, Mannucci E, Maggi MBody weight loss reverts obesity-associated hypogonadotropic hypogonadism: a systematic review and meta-analysisEur J Endocrinol.(2013 May 2)
    125. ^Camacho EM, Huhtaniemi IT, O'Neill TW, Finn JD, Pye SR, Lee DM, Tajar A, Bartfai G, Boonen S, Casanueva FF, Forti G, Giwercman A, Han TS, Kula K, Keevil B, Lean ME, Pendleton N, Punab M, Vanderschueren D, Wu FC, EMAS GroupAge-associated changes in hypothalamic-pituitary-testicular function in middle-aged and older men are modified by weight change and lifestyle factors: longitudinal results from the European Male Ageing StudyEur J Endocrinol.(2013 Feb 20)
    126. ^Pilz S, Frisch S, Koertke H, Kuhn J, Dreier J, Obermayer-Pietsch B, Wehr E, Zittermann AEffect of vitamin D supplementation on testosterone levels in menHorm Metab Res.(2011 Mar)
    127. ^Wehr E, Pilz S, Boehm BO, März W, Obermayer-Pietsch BAssociation of vitamin D status with serum androgen levels in menClin Endocrinol (Oxf).(2010 Aug)
    128. ^Institute of Medicine (US) Committee to Review Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin D and Calcium, A Catharine Ross, Christine L Taylor, Ann L Yaktine, Heather B Del ValleDietary Reference Intakes for Calcium and Vitamin D
    129. ^Heaney R, Garland C, Baggerly C, French C, Gorham ELetter to Veugelers, P.J. and Ekwaru, J.P., A statistical error in the estimation of the recommended dietary allowance for vitamin D. Nutrients 2014, 6, 4472-4475; doi:10.3390/nu6104472Nutrients.(2015 Mar 10)
    130. ^Veugelers PJ, Ekwaru JPA statistical error in the estimation of the recommended dietary allowance for vitamin DNutrients.(2014 Oct 20)
    131. ^Netter A, Hartoma R, Nahoul KEffect of zinc administration on plasma testosterone, dihydrotestosterone, and sperm countArch Androl.(1981 Aug)
    132. ^Chang CS, Choi JB, Kim HJ, Park SBCorrelation between serum testosterone level and concentrations of copper and zinc in hair tissueBiol Trace Elem Res.(2011 Dec)
    133. ^Tang YM, Wang DG, Li J, Li XH, Wang Q, Liu N, Liu WT, Li YXRelationships between micronutrient losses in sweat and blood pressure among heat-exposed steelworkersInd Health.(2016 Jun 10)
    134. ^Institute of Medicine (US) Panel on MicronutrientsDietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin A, Vitamin K, Arsenic, Boron, Chromium, Copper, Iodine, Iron, Manganese, Molybdenum, Nickel, Silicon, Vanadium, and Zinc
    135. ^Singh M, Das RRZinc for the common coldCochrane Database Syst Rev.(2011 Feb 16)
    136. ^Valentiner-Branth P, Shrestha PS, Chandyo RK, Mathisen M, Basnet S, Bhandari N, Adhikari RK, Sommerfelt H, Strand TAA randomized controlled trial of the effect of zinc as adjuvant therapy in children 2-35 mo of age with severe or nonsevere pneumonia in Bhaktapur, NepalAm J Clin Nutr.(2010 Jun)
    137. ^Willis MS, Monaghan SA, Miller ML, McKenna RW, Perkins WD, Levinson BS, Bhushan V, Kroft SHZinc-induced copper deficiency: a report of three cases initially recognized on bone marrow examinationAm J Clin Pathol.(2005 Jan)
    138. ^Afrin LBFatal copper deficiency from excessive use of zinc-based denture adhesiveAm J Med Sci.(2010 Aug)
    139. ^Maggio M, De Vita F, Lauretani F, Nouvenne A, Meschi T, Ticinesi A, Dominguez LJ, Barbagallo M, Dall'aglio E, Ceda GPThe Interplay between Magnesium and Testosterone in Modulating Physical Function in MenInt J Endocrinol.(2014)
    140. ^Uwitonze AM, Razzaque MSRole of Magnesium in Vitamin D Activation and FunctionJ Am Osteopath Assoc.(2018 Mar 1)
    141. ^Costello RB, Moser-Veillon PBA review of magnesium intake in the elderly. A cause for concern?Magnes Res.(1992 Mar)
    142. ^Nielsen FH, Lukaski HCUpdate on the relationship between magnesium and exerciseMagnes Res.(2006 Sep)
    143. ^Institute of Medicine (US) Committee on Military Nutrition Research; Marriott BM, editor. Washington (DC)Nutritional Needs in Hot Environments, “Influence of Exercise and Heat on Magnesium Metabolism”National Academies Press (US).(1993)
    144. ^Consolazio CF, Matoush LO, Nelson RA, Harding RS, Canham JEExcretion of sodium, potassium, magnesium and iron in human sweat and the relation of each to balance and requirementsJ Nutr.(1963 Apr)
    145. ^Yoshimura Y, Fujisaki K, Yamamoto T, Shinohara YPharmacokinetic Studies of Orally Administered Magnesium Oxide in RatsYakugaku Zasshi.(2017 May 1)
    146. ^Firoz M, Graber MBioavailability of US commercial magnesium preparationsMagnes Res.(2001 Dec)
    147. ^Gonzales-Arimborgo C, Yupanqui I, Montero E, Alarcón-Yaquetto DE, Zevallos-Concha A, Caballero L, Gasco M, Zhao J, Khan IA, Gonzales GFAcceptability, Safety, and Efficacy of Oral Administration of Extracts of Black or Red Maca (Lepidium meyenii) in Adult Human Subjects: A Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled StudyPharmaceuticals (Basel).(2016 Aug 18)
    148. ^Zenico T, Cicero AF, Valmorri L, Mercuriali M, Bercovich ESubjective effects of Lepidium meyenii (Maca) extract on well-being and sexual performances in patients with mild erectile dysfunction: a randomised, double-blind clinical trialAndrologia.(2009 Apr)
    149. ^Gonzales GF, Córdova A, Vega K, Chung A, Villena A, Góñez C, Castillo SEffect of Lepidium meyenii (MACA) on sexual desire and its absent relationship with serum testosterone levels in adult healthy menAndrologia.(2002 Dec)
    150. ^Dording CM, Schettler PJ, Dalton ED, Parkin SR, Walker RS, Fehling KB, Fava M, Mischoulon DA double-blind placebo-controlled trial of maca root as treatment for antidepressant-induced sexual dysfunction in womenEvid Based Complement Alternat Med.(2015)
    151. ^G. D’Aniello, S. Ronsini, T. Notari, N. Grieco, V. Infante, N. D’Angel, F. Mascia, M. Fiore, G. Fisher and A. D’AnielloD-asparate, a key element for the improvement of sperm qualityAdvances in Sexual Medicine.(2012 Oct)
    152. ^Topo E, Soricelli A, D'Aniello A, Ronsini S, D'Aniello GThe role and molecular mechanism of D-aspartic acid in the release and synthesis of LH and testosterone in humans and ratsReprod Biol Endocrinol.(2009 Oct 27)
    153. ^Melville GW, Siegler JC, Marshall PWThree and six grams supplementation of d-aspartic acid in resistance trained menJ Int Soc Sports Nutr.(2015 Apr 1)
    154. ^Willoughby DS, Leutholtz BD-aspartic acid supplementation combined with 28 days of heavy resistance training has no effect on body composition, muscle strength, and serum hormones associated with the hypothalamo-pituitary-gonadal axis in resistance-trained menNutr Res.(2013 Oct)
    155. ^Hiroki Yamaguchi, Hisaki Shimada, Kazuhiro Yoshita, Yutaka Tsubata, Kouzou Ikarashi, Tetsuo Morioka, Noriko Saito, Shinji Sakai, Ichiei NaritaSevere hypermagnesemia induced by magnesium oxide ingestion: a case seriesCEN Case Rep.(2019 Feb)
    156. ^Bokhari SR, Siriki R, Teran FJ, Batuman VFatal Hypermagnesemia Due to Laxative Use.Am J Med Sci.(2018 Apr)
    157. ^Aal-Hamad AH, Al-Alawi AM, Kashoub MS, Falhammar HHypermagnesemia in Clinical Practice.Medicina (Kaunas).(2023 Jun 24)
    158. ^Mori H, Suzuki H, Hirai Y, Okuzawa A, Kayashima A, Kubosawa Y, Kinoshita S, Fujimoto A, Nakazato Y, Nishizawa T, Kikuchi MClinical features of hypermagnesemia in patients with functional constipation taking daily magnesium oxide.J Clin Biochem Nutr.(2019-Jul)
    159. ^Emma A Vermeulen, Marc G VervloetMagnesium Administration in Chronic Kidney DiseaseNutrients.(2023 Jan 20)
    160. ^M Shechter, C N Merz, M Paul-Labrador, S R Meisel, R K Rude, M D Molloy, J H Dwyer, P K Shah, S KaulOral magnesium supplementation inhibits platelet-dependent thrombosis in patients with coronary artery diseaseAm J Cardiol.(1999 Jul 15)
    161. ^Gries A, Bode C, Gross S, Peter K, Böhrer H, Martin EThe effect of intravenously administered magnesium on platelet function in patients after cardiac surgery.Anesth Analg.(1999 Jun)
    162. ^Guzin, K. et alThe effect of magnesium sulfate treatment on blood biochemistry and bleeding time in patients with severe preeclampsiaJ Matern Fetal Neonatal Med.(May 2010)
    163. ^Ravn HB, Vissinger H, Kristensen SD, Wennmalm A, Thygesen K, Husted SEMagnesium inhibits platelet activity--an infusion study in healthy volunteers.Thromb Haemost.(1996 Jun)
    164. ^Brown DD, Juhl RPDecreased bioavailability of digoxin due to antacids and kaolin-pectin.N Engl J Med.(1976 Nov 4)
    165. ^M D Allen, D J Greenblatt, J S Harmatz, T W SmithEffect of magnesium--aluminum hydroxide and kaolin--pectin on absorption of digoxin from tablets and capsulesJ Clin Pharmacol.(1981 Jan)
    166. ^Khalil SAThe uptake of digoxin and digitoxin by some antacids.J Pharm Pharmacol.(1974 Dec)
    167. ^Kivistö KT, Neuvonen PJEnhancement of absorption and effect of glipizide by magnesium hydroxide.Clin Pharmacol Ther.(1991 Jan)
    168. ^Neuvonen PJ, Kivistö KTThe effects of magnesium hydroxide on the absorption and efficacy of two glibenclamide preparations.Br J Clin Pharmacol.(1991 Aug)
    169. ^Ramanathan S, Mathias A, Wei X, Shen G, Koziara J, Cheng A, Kearney BPPharmacokinetics of once-daily boosted elvitegravir when administered in combination with acid-reducing agents.J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr.(2013 Sep 1)
    170. ^Bordes C, Leguelinel-Blache G, Lavigne JP, Mauboussin JM, Laureillard D, Faure H, Rouanet I, Sotto A, Loubet PInteractions between antiretroviral therapy and complementary and alternative medicine: a narrative review.Clin Microbiol Infect.(2020 Sep)
    171. ^Rajesh Krishna, Lilly East, Patrick Larson, Chandni Valiathan, Kristin Butterfield, Yang Teng, Martha Hernandez-IllasEffect of metal-cation antacids on the pharmacokinetics of 1200 mg raltegravirJ Pharm Pharmacol.(2016 Nov)
    172. ^Jennifer J Kiser, J Brock Bumpass, Amie L Meditz, Peter L Anderson, Lane Bushman, Michelle Ray, Julie A Predhomme, Joseph Rower, Sam Mawhinney, Richard BrundageEffect of antacids on the pharmacokinetics of raltegravir in human immunodeficiency virus-seronegative volunteersAntimicrob Agents Chemother.(2010 Dec)
    173. ^Michael Boettcher, Michael Gerisch, Maximilian Lobmeyer, Nina Besche, Dirk Thomas, Mireille Gerrits, Julia Lemmen, Wolfgang Mueck, Martin Radtke, Corina BeckerMetabolism and Pharmacokinetic Drug-Drug Interaction Profile of Vericiguat, A Soluble Guanylate Cyclase Stimulator: Results From Preclinical and Phase I Healthy Volunteer StudiesClin Pharmacokinet.(2020 Nov)
    174. ^Yushi Kashihara, Yui Terao, Kensaku Yoda, Takeshi Hirota, Toshio Kubota, Miyuki Kimura, Shunji Matsuki, Masaaki Hirakawa, Shin Irie, Ichiro IeiriEffects of magnesium oxide on pharmacokinetics of L-dopa/carbidopa and assessment of pharmacodynamic changes by a model-based simulationEur J Clin Pharmacol.(2019 Mar)
    175. ^Noriyuki Miyaue, Hayato Yabe, Masahiro NagaiConcomitant use of magnesium oxide significantly decreases absorption of levodopa preparations in patients with Parkinson's diseaseClin Park Relat Disord.(2023 Oct 31)
    176. ^Miyaue N, Kubo M, Nagai MAscorbic acid can alleviate the degradation of levodopa and carbidopa induced by magnesium oxide.Brain Behav.(2022 Jul)
    177. ^Yagi T, Naito T, Mino Y, Umemura K, Kawakami JImpact of concomitant antacid administration on gabapentin plasma exposure and oral bioavailability in healthy adult subjects.Drug Metab Pharmacokinet.(2012)
    178. ^Itoh A, Akagi Y, Shimomura H, Aoyama TInteraction between Bisphosphonates and Mineral Water: Study of Oral Risedronate Absorption in Rats.Biol Pharm Bull.(2016)
    179. ^Agnieszka Wiesner, Mariusz Szuta, Agnieszka Galanty, Paweł PaśkoOptimal Dosing Regimen of Osteoporosis Drugs in Relation to Food Intake as the Key for the Enhancement of the Treatment Effectiveness-A Concise Literature ReviewFoods.(2021 Mar 29)
    180. ^Suda KJ, Garey KW, Danziger LHTreatment failures secondary to drug interactions with divalent cations and fluoroquinolone.Pharm World Sci.(2005 Apr)
    181. ^Stass H, Böttcher MF, Ochmann KEvaluation of the influence of antacids and H2 antagonists on the absorption of moxifloxacin after oral administration of a 400mg dose to healthy volunteers.Clin Pharmacokinet.(2001)
    182. ^Campbell NR, Kara M, Hasinoff BB, Haddara WM, McKay DWNorfloxacin interaction with antacids and minerals.Br J Clin Pharmacol.(1992 Jan)
    183. ^Allen A, Vousden M, Porter A, Lewis AEffect of Maalox on the bioavailability of oral gemifloxacin in healthy volunteers.Chemotherapy.(1999 Nov-Dec)
    184. ^Khalil SA, Daabis NA, Naggar VF, Wafik MEffect of magnesium trisilicate and citric acid on the biovailability of tetracycline in man.Pharmazie.(1977 Aug-Sep)
    185. ^Healy DP, Dansereau RJ, Dunn AB, Clendening CE, Mounts AW, Deepe GS JrReduced tetracycline bioavailability caused by magnesium aluminum silicate in liquid formulations of bismuth subsalicylate.Ann Pharmacother.(1997 Dec)
    186. ^Garty M, Hurwitz AEffect of cimetidine and antacids on gastrointestinal absorption of tetracycline.Clin Pharmacol Ther.(1980 Aug)
    187. ^K L Wallace, S C Curry, F LoVecchio, R A RaschkeEffect of magnesium hydroxide on iron absorption following simulated mild iron overdose in human subjectsAcad Emerg Med.(1998 Oct)
    188. ^Hall GJ, Davis AEInhibition of iron absorption by magnesium trisilicate.Med J Aust.(1969 Jul 12)
    189. ^Madias NE, Levey ASMetabolic alkalosis due to absorption of "nonabsorbable" antacids.Am J Med.(1983 Jan)
    190. ^H A ZiessmanAlkalosis and seizure due to a cation-exchange resin and magnesium hydroxideSouth Med J.(1976 Apr)
    191. ^P C Fernandez, P J KovnatMetabolic acidosis reversed by the combination of magnesium hydroxide and a cation-exchange resinN Engl J Med.(1972 Jan 6)
    192. ^Schroeder, E.Alkalosis resulting from combined administration of a “nonsystemic” antacid and a cation-exchange resinGastroenterology.(May 1969)
    193. ^McElnay JC, Mukhtar HA, D'Arcy PF, Temple DJ, Collier PSThe effect of magnesium trisilicate and kaolin on the in vivo absorption of chloroquine.J Trop Med Hyg.(1982 Aug)
    194. ^Iwuagwu MA, Aloko KSAdsorption of paracetamol and chloroquine phosphate by some antacids.J Pharm Pharmacol.(1992 Aug)
    195. ^P Kahela, M Anttila, H SundqvistAntacids and sotalol absorptionActa Pharmacol Toxicol (Copenh).(1981 Sep)
    196. ^S Läer, J Neumann, H ScholzInteraction between sotalol and an antacid preparationBr J Clin Pharmacol.(1997 Mar)
    197. ^V F Naggar, S A KhalilEffect of magnesium trisilicate on nitrofurantoin absorptionClin Pharmacol Ther.(1979 Jun)
    198. ^Paul D Martin, Dennis W Schneck, Aaron L Dane, Michael J WarwickThe effect of a combination antacid preparation containing aluminium hydroxide and magnesium hydroxide on rosuvastatin pharmacokineticsCurr Med Res Opin.(2008 Apr)
    199. ^M Lohitnavy, O Lohitnavy, O Thangkeattiyanon, W SrichaiReduced oral itraconazole bioavailability by antacid suspensionJ Clin Pharm Ther.(2005 Jun)
    200. ^Murdoch DL, Forrest G, Davies DL, McInnes GTA comparison of the potassium and magnesium-sparing properties of amiloride and spironolactone in diuretic-treated normal subjects.Br J Clin Pharmacol.(1993 Apr)
    201. ^P Lim, E JacobMagnesium-saving property of an aldosterone antagonist in the treatment of oedema of liver cirrhosisBr Med J.(1978 Mar 25)
    202. ^Devane J, Ryan MPThe effects of amiloride and triamterene on urinary magnesium excretion in conscious saline-loaded rats.Br J Pharmacol.(1981 Feb)
    203. ^J Devane, M P RyanDose-dependent reduction in renal magnesium clearance by amiloride during frusemide-induced diuresis in ratsBr J Pharmacol.(1983 Nov)
    204. ^J J van Meyel, P Smits, F W GribnauAbsence of magnesium sparing effect of a single dose of triamterene in combination with frusemide in healthy male adultsBr J Clin Pharmacol.(1990 Nov)
    205. ^Brenda C T Kieboom, Robert Zietse, M Arfan Ikram, Ewout J Hoorn, Bruno H StrickerThiazide but not loop diuretics is associated with hypomagnesaemia in the general populationPharmacoepidemiol Drug Saf.(2018 Nov)
    206. ^B J Martin, K MilliganDiuretic-associated hypomagnesemia in the elderlyArch Intern Med.(1987 Oct)
    207. ^Pak CYCorrection of thiazide-induced hypomagnesemia by potassium-magnesium citrate from review of prior trialsClin Nephrol.(2000 Oct)
    208. ^Kheir K, Al Jassem O, El Koubayati G, Haddad FA Case of Severe Proton Pump Inhibitor-Induced Hypomagnesemia Refractory to Continuous Oral and Intravenous Magnesium Replenishment.Cureus.(2024 Feb)
    209. ^Camila Costa Souza, Larissa G Rigueto, Henrique Costa Santiago, Antonio Carlos Seguro, Adriana Castello Girardi, Weverton Machado LuchiMultiple electrolyte disorders triggered by proton pump inhibitor-induced hypomagnesemia: Case reports with a mini-review of the literatureClin Nephrol Case Stud.(2024 Jan 4)
    210. ^Ewout J Hoorn, Joost van der Hoek, Rob A de Man, Ernst J Kuipers, Clemens Bolwerk, Robert ZietseA case series of proton pump inhibitor-induced hypomagnesemiaAm J Kidney Dis.(2010 Jul)
    211. ^Wisit Cheungpasitporn, Charat Thongprayoon, Wonngarm Kittanamongkolchai, Narat Srivali, Peter J Edmonds, Patompong Ungprasert, Oisin A O'Corragain, Sira Korpaisarn, Stephen B EricksonProton pump inhibitors linked to hypomagnesemia: a systematic review and meta-analysis of observational studiesRen Fail.(2015 Aug)
    212. ^Thawin Srinutta, Api Chewcharat, Kullaya Takkavatakarn, Kearkiat Praditpornsilpa, Somchai Eiam-Ong, Bertrand L Jaber, Paweena SusantitaphongProton pump inhibitors and hypomagnesemia: A meta-analysis of observational studiesMedicine (Baltimore).(2019 Nov)
    213. ^K A Bachmann, T J Sullivan, L Jauregui, J Reese, K Miller, L LevineDrug interactions of H2-receptor antagonistsScand J Gastroenterol Suppl.(1994)
    214. ^G W Mihaly, A T Marino, L K Webster, D B Jones, W J Louis, R A SmallwoodHigh dose of antacid (Mylanta II) reduces bioavailability of ranitidineBr Med J (Clin Res Ed).(1982 Oct 9)
    215. ^N Barzaghi, G Gatti, F Crema, E PeruccaImpaired bioavailability of famotidine given concurrently with a potent antacidJ Clin Pharmacol.(1989 Jul)
    216. ^R Gugler, M Brand, A SomogyiImpaired cimetidine absorption due to antacids and metoclopramideEur J Clin Pharmacol.(1981)
    217. ^Qiao-Ai Wu, Yi-Qing YeNeuromuscular blockade after therapy with magnesium sulfate and amlodipineEur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol.(2010 Apr)
    218. ^M Ben-Ami, Y Giladi, E ShalevThe combination of magnesium sulphate and nifedipine: a cause of neuromuscular blockadeBr J Obstet Gynaecol.(1994 Mar)
    219. ^S W Snyder, M S CardwellNeuromuscular blockade with magnesium sulfate and nifedipineAm J Obstet Gynecol.(1989 Jul)
    220. ^G D Waisman, L M Mayorga, M I Cámera, C A Vignolo, A MartinottiMagnesium plus nifedipine: potentiation of hypotensive effect in preeclampsia?Am J Obstet Gynecol.(1988 Aug)
    221. ^Laura A Magee, Saman Miremadi, Jing Li, Carol Cheng, Mary H H Ensom, Bruce Carleton, Anne-Marie Côté, Peter von DadelszenTherapy with both magnesium sulfate and nifedipine does not increase the risk of serious magnesium-related maternal side effects in women with preeclampsiaAm J Obstet Gynecol.(2005 Jul)
    222. ^Laura Rodríguez-Rubio, Julian Solis Garcia Del Pozo, Eduardo Nava, Joaquín JordánInteraction between magnesium sulfate and neuromuscular blockers during the perioperative period. A systematic review and meta-analysisJ Clin Anesth.(2016 Nov)
    223. ^Robert McConnell, Anne Pelham, Felicity Dewhurst, Rachel QuibellMagnesium-induced ketamine toxicityBMJ Support Palliat Care.(2023 Dec 7)
    224. ^K R Savic Vujovic, S Vuckovic, D Srebro, B Medic, R Stojanovic, C Vucetic, M ProstranA synergistic interaction between magnesium sulphate and ketamine on the inhibition of acute nociception in ratsEur Rev Med Pharmacol Sci.(2015 Jul)
    225. ^C S L'Hommedieu, D Nicholas, D A Armes, P Jones, T Nelson, L K PickeringPotentiation of magnesium sulfate--induced neuromuscular weakness by gentamicin, tobramycin, and amikacinJ Pediatr.(1983 Apr)
    226. ^J P Brady, H C WilliamsMagnesium intoxication in a premature infantPediatrics.(1967 Jul)
    227. ^Anna Puścion-Jakubik, Natalia Bartosiewicz, Katarzyna SochaIs the Magnesium Content in Food Supplements Consistent with the Manufacturers' Declarations?Nutrients.(2021 Sep 28)
    228. ^Aleksandra Moniakowska, Anna Dzierwanowska, Dagmara Strumińska-ParulskaOn uranium 234U and 238U radionuclides in calcium and magnesium supplements and the potential effective radiation dose assessment to the consumersFood Addit Contam Part B Surveill.(2019 Sep)
    229. ^Strumińska-Parulska DI(210)Pb in magnesium dietary supplements.Isotopes Environ Health Stud.(2017 May)
    230. ^Geyer H. et al“Cross-contaminations of vitamin- and mineral-tablets with metandienone and stanozolol.” In Recent advances in doping analysis (14): Proceedings of the Manfred Donike Workshop; 24th Cologne Workshop on Dope Analysis, 4th to 9th June 2006. Edited by W. Schänzer et al. Germany: Sport & Buch Strauß(2006)
    231. ^Duley L, Gülmezoglu AM, Henderson-Smart DJ, Chou DMagnesium sulphate and other anticonvulsants for women with pre-eclampsia.Cochrane Database Syst Rev.(2010-Nov-10)
    232. ^Bain ES, Middleton PF, Crowther CAMaternal adverse effects of different antenatal magnesium sulphate regimens for improving maternal and infant outcomes: a systematic review.BMC Pregnancy Childbirth.(2013 Oct 21)
    233. ^Magnesium Oxide. Drugs and Lactation Database (LactMed®); USA: National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, updated February 2024, cited September 2024(2006)
    234. ^Magnesium Sulfate. Drugs and Lactation Database (LactMed®); USA: National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, updated January 2024, cited September 2024(2006)
    235. ^Sakanoue M, Sanada J, Kanekura TSkin eruption elicited by magnesium oxide (Maglax(®) ).J Dermatol.(2016 Feb)
    236. ^Thorp JM Jr, Katz VL, Campbell D, Cefalo RCHypersensitivity to magnesium sulfate.Am J Obstet Gynecol.(1989 Oct)
    237. ^Sehgal VN, Shyam Prasad AL, Gangwani OPMagnesium trisilicate induced fixed drug eruptions.Dermatologica.(1986)
    238. ^Iwamuro M, Saito S, Yoshioka M, Urata H, Ueda K, Yamamoto K, Okada HA Magnesium Oxide Bezoar.Intern Med.(2018 Nov 1)
    239. ^Shigekawa Y, Kobayashi Y, Higashiguchi T, Nasu T, Yamamoto M, Ochiai M, Tsuji T, Yamaue HRectal obstruction by a giant pharmacobezoar composed of magnesium oxide: report of a case.Surg Today.(2010 Oct)
    240. ^Tatekawa Y, Nakatani K, Ishii H, Paku S, Kasamatsu M, Sekiya N, Nakano HSmall bowel obstruction caused by a medication bezoar: report of a case.Surg Today.(1996)
    241. ^Magnesium: Fact Sheet for Health Professionals; USA: National Institutes of Health Office of Dietary Supplements; last updated 2 June 2022; cited September 2024(2022 June)