What does aerobic exercise performance entail?
Aerobic exercise includes activities such as low-to-moderate-intensity running, cycling, and swimming. These exercises are described as aerobic because they are fueled by aerobic metabolism, which means oxygen is used to make energy. The capacity to deliver oxygen to muscles via the cardiorespiratory system (the lungs, heart, and blood vessels) and the ability to produce energy (adenosine triphosphate, or ATP) using oxygen are important components of aerobic exercise performance.
While aerobic exercise performance determines success in endurance sports, it is also an important aspect of other sports that include an endurance component (e.g., soccer and basketball) and is closely tied to cardiovascular health.
How is aerobic exercise performance measured?
Aerobic exercise performance is measured by how long it takes someone to complete an event of a specific distance (i.e., a “time trial”), with a faster time indicating better performance.
Other measures of aerobic fitness that may predict aerobic exercise performance include aerobic capacity, lactate threshold, and exercise efficiency/economy (i.e., the oxygen cost of movement). Aerobic capacity, or VO2max, is the highest rate of oxygen consumption that the body can achieve. VO2max is the most commonly measured component of aerobic fitness and is a key predictor of aerobic exercise performance — elite endurance athletes have VO2max values 50%–100% higher than non-elite active people.[17] VO2max, lactate threshold, and exercise efficiency are all measured, or estimated, using specific exercise testing protocols.
What types of training can improve aerobic exercise performance?
Low-intensity, high-volume training (<80% of maximal heart rate), threshold/tempo training (80–95% of maximal heart rate), and high-intensity interval training (HIIT) (>95% of maximal heart rate) can all improve aerobic exercise performance when performed 20–60 minutes per day, 3–5 times per week, for around 2–6 months.[18] A well-designed training program may incorporate all types of training to attain peak performance, with some data suggesting a ratio of 80% low-intensity training and 20% high-intensity training is optimal.
Have any supplements been studied for aerobic exercise performance?
Among the supplements and ergogenic aids showing the most promise for improving aerobic exercise performance are caffeine, supplemental carbohydrates, creatine (creatine monohydrate), nitrate (e.g., beetroot juice), beta-alanine, and sodium bicarbonate.[19] Other supplements with less robust evidence to support their efficacy are citrulline, glycerol, quercetin, taurine, arginine, and medium-chain triglycerides (MCTs).[20]
How can diet affect aerobic exercise performance?
Aerobic exercise performance is enhanced by strategies that maintain high carbohydrate availability. Because glycogen depletion is associated with fatigue and reduced work rates, sports nutrition guidelines recommend a higher-carbohydrate diet. However, the number of carbohydrates consumed should depend on the volume and intensity of exercise.[21][19] For light to moderate exercise performed for up to 60 minutes per day, 3–7 grams of carbohydrate per kilogram of body weight per day (g/kg/d) is recommended, while individuals performing higher-intensity exercise for longer durations (1 to 5 hours per day) should consume 6–12 g/kg/d.[22] It’s also important to ensure an adequate intake of energy, carbohydrates, protein, fat, vitamins, and minerals.
Which other factors can affect aerobic exercise performance?
Adequate rest and muscle recovery are crucial for aerobic exercise performance. One of the main factors influencing recovery is sleep, a lack of which has been shown to impair physical and mental recovery from exercise.[23] Other factors that can positively influence recovery include nutrient timing and choice of foods,[24] limiting alcohol exposure,[25] avoiding overtraining,[26], and reducing emotional and psychological stress and fatigue.
The environment can also influence aerobic exercise performance; heat and cold, humidity, air temperature, wind speed, altitude, and even clothing are all factors to consider when exercising in extreme conditions.[18][27]
Examine Database: Aerobic Exercise Performance
Research FeedRead all studies
Frequently asked questions
Aerobic exercise includes activities such as low-to-moderate-intensity running, cycling, and swimming. These exercises are described as aerobic because they are fueled by aerobic metabolism, which means oxygen is used to make energy. The capacity to deliver oxygen to muscles via the cardiorespiratory system (the lungs, heart, and blood vessels) and the ability to produce energy (adenosine triphosphate, or ATP) using oxygen are important components of aerobic exercise performance.
While aerobic exercise performance determines success in endurance sports, it is also an important aspect of other sports that include an endurance component (e.g., soccer and basketball) and is closely tied to cardiovascular health.
Aerobic exercise performance is measured by how long it takes someone to complete an event of a specific distance (i.e., a “time trial”), with a faster time indicating better performance.
Other measures of aerobic fitness that may predict aerobic exercise performance include aerobic capacity, lactate threshold, and exercise efficiency/economy (i.e., the oxygen cost of movement). Aerobic capacity, or VO2max, is the highest rate of oxygen consumption that the body can achieve. VO2max is the most commonly measured component of aerobic fitness and is a key predictor of aerobic exercise performance — elite endurance athletes have VO2max values 50%–100% higher than non-elite active people.[17] VO2max, lactate threshold, and exercise efficiency are all measured, or estimated, using specific exercise testing protocols.
Low-intensity, high-volume training (<80% of maximal heart rate), threshold/tempo training (80–95% of maximal heart rate), and high-intensity interval training (HIIT) (>95% of maximal heart rate) can all improve aerobic exercise performance when performed 20–60 minutes per day, 3–5 times per week, for around 2–6 months.[18] A well-designed training program may incorporate all types of training to attain peak performance, with some data suggesting a ratio of 80% low-intensity training and 20% high-intensity training is optimal.
A combination of HIIT and low- to moderate-intensity exercise training — which elite athletes use — is likely the best way to improve aerobic exercise performance. Research shows that combining HIIT with moderate-intensity training is more effective for improving aerobic capacity than moderate-intensity training alone.[28] However, when workouts are matched for energy expenditure, HIIT may improve VO2max by an additional 1.2–3.3 mL/kg/min versus moderate-intensity training,[29][30] despite requiring an approximately 2- to 3-fold lower time commitment.[31]
Lower-volume HIIT — also known as sprint-interval training (SIT) — consisting of maximal effort 30-second sprints is shown to improve running economy and 10-kilometer time trial performance in runners.[32] However, longer intervals (2–4 minutes) may be more effective for improving VO2max compared to shorter intervals (10–30 seconds). Additionally, for HIIT to be most effective at improving VO2max, the ideal workout duration should be greater than 15 minutes.[30]
During hot-weather exercise, sweat rate increases to cool the body and prevent drastic changes in body temperature. Hydration is crucial for maintaining and improving performance in the heat. To maintain adequate hydration, try to replace 80%–100% of fluid lost through sweat during exercise, which can be achieved by drinking 4–8 ounces of fluid every 15–20 minutes.
Using strategies such as a cooling vest, ingestion of an ice slurry, or cold-water immersion (taking a cool or cold bath) have all been shown to improve exercise performance in the heat by as much as 5%, an effect due to a reduction in core body temperature. These strategies can be implemented before exercise (to start with a lower core body temperature) or during exercise (between sets) to intermittently cool down the body.[35]
Other strategies to improve aerobic exercise performance in the heat include heat acclimatization (7–14 days of exercise in the heat), wearing light-colored, moisture-wicking fabrics, and supplementing with electrolytes like sodium, potassium, and magnesium during exercise to maintain hydration status. Even proper sleep may help improve hot-weather aerobic exercise performance. Sleep deprivation can reduce sweat rate by almost 30% and elevate core body temperature.[35]
Among the supplements and ergogenic aids showing the most promise for improving aerobic exercise performance are caffeine, supplemental carbohydrates, creatine (creatine monohydrate), nitrate (e.g., beetroot juice), beta-alanine, and sodium bicarbonate.[19] Other supplements with less robust evidence to support their efficacy are citrulline, glycerol, quercetin, taurine, arginine, and medium-chain triglycerides (MCTs).[20]
Caffeine is a popular supplement among athletes and is commonly consumed in energy drinks, “preworkout” products, chewing gum, energy gels, coffee, and other caffeine-containing foods and beverages. It’s one of the most heavily-researched ergogenic (i.e., performance-enhancing) supplements in the world.
Caffeine can increase aerobic exercise performance between 2%–4% when 3–6 mg of caffeine per kilogram of body weight is consumed about 60 minutes before exercise. Performance improvements have been observed in cycling, running, swimming, skiing, and other endurance sports.[36]
A complete understanding of how caffeine exerts its ergogenic effects has yet to be established, but there is evidence to support several different mechanisms. Caffeine’s effects on the central nervous system primarily explain how it enhances performance. Caffeine blocks adenosine receptors in the brain, and in this way, may reduce pain perception, increase motivation, decrease perceived effort, and increase motor unit recruitment during exercise — all of which may contribute to improvements in aerobic exercise performance. Caffeine may also have direct effects on muscle contraction and force generation by increasing the availability and mobilization of calcium.[36]
Aerobic exercise performance is enhanced by strategies that maintain high carbohydrate availability. Because glycogen depletion is associated with fatigue and reduced work rates, sports nutrition guidelines recommend a higher-carbohydrate diet. However, the number of carbohydrates consumed should depend on the volume and intensity of exercise.[21][19] For light to moderate exercise performed for up to 60 minutes per day, 3–7 grams of carbohydrate per kilogram of body weight per day (g/kg/d) is recommended, while individuals performing higher-intensity exercise for longer durations (1 to 5 hours per day) should consume 6–12 g/kg/d.[22] It’s also important to ensure an adequate intake of energy, carbohydrates, protein, fat, vitamins, and minerals.
Fasted cardio uses more fatty acids while exercising, but over the long term has negligible fat loss benefits. Fasted vs fed has little effect on performance except when nearing maximal effort.
Interventions
Appetite
Exercise is inherently linked to less food intake, possible related to less responsiveness to food cues (as behaviours do not change).[1]
In otherwise healthy normal weight males, running for an hour on a treadmill at 70% VO2 max compared to either fasted or after a standardized test meal (30% daily energy intake and mostly carbohydrate) noted that fed exercise suppressed appetite to a greater degree than fasted (both more effective than control) but there was no significant differences in whole-day food intake.[2]
Although exercise per se has a significant effect on appetite, there does not appear to be a practical difference between fasted and fed training in the AM when food is consumed afterwards and measured for 24 hours.
Exercise Performance and Fitness
In comparing fasted versus fed training, there is no significant difference in physical output during 70% VO2 running on a treadmill nor the rate of perceived exertion.[2] A lack of difference in RPE with non-maximal cardiovascular exercise has been noted elsewhere.[3]
Over time, fasted training may underperform peri-workout carbohydrate for improving VO2 max (training adaptations),[4] although this is somewhat contested as another study with similar results found no significant difference.[5] The former study (fasted training underperforming fed training) is thought to be secondary to carbohydrates inherently having a performance enhancing effect for near-maximal exercise;[6] a benefit that would not be apparent in studies using submaximal exercise.
In submaximal exercise, there may be no differences at all between fasted and fed training. During maximal exercise attempts (which may include intense resistance training or high intensity interval training) being fed with carbohydrates appears to be more beneficial than fasted training for the purpose of enhancing adaptations to training.
Energy Expenditure and Weight
There is no significant difference in energy expenditure between fasted and fed training as assessed by treadmill running, although RER was lower in fasted (indicative of more fatty acid utilization; fed state consumed a large amount of carbohydrates).[2] This increase in fat utilization may underlie the anti-lipidemic benefits of exercise (normalizing the increase of blood lipids that occurs with excess dietary intake of lipids), which does not occur when carbohydrates are preloaded[7] nor is it related to the Glycemic Index of the carbohydrate source.[8] Indirectly, since there are no changes in metabolic rate while a greater percentage of energy comes from fatty acids this reduces glucose oxidation and attenuates the rate of glucose drops induced by endurance exercise (risk of hypoglycemia) when measured over 6 weeks.[5]
RER and subsequent percentage of lipids being used as fuel seems to be highly correlated to exercise-induced fat loss over time,[9] and although the intensity that uses most fatty acids as a percent is unchanged fasted training over 6 weeks (relative to carbohydrate preload) enhances how much fatty acids the body adapts to utilize (21% increase over 6 weeks relative to a 9% increase; with exercise per se increasing this capacity).[5] This increase in fatty acid usage occurs when exercise is performed in a fasted state[5] and ingestion of a carbohydrate beverage prior to exercise after such a protocol normalizes the differences between groups.[10]
The decrease in RER has once failed to be any different between a carbohydrate preload and the fasted state in well trained individuals.[11]
Fasted exercise results in a greater percentage of calories being derived from fatty acids rather than carbohydrates; this is independent of any actual changes in metabolic rate or work capacity (which, for submaximal exercise, appear unchanged).
One study comparing prolonged cardio exercise in the morning in either a fed or fasted state over 50 days noted that although both groups resulted in a loss of body fat, fed resulted in more weight loss (2.6%) while fasted resulted in less overall weight loss (1.9%) while was able to reach a statistically significant reduction in body fat loss (6.2%) relative to no significant change in fed cardio.[3] These were independent of any differences in rate of perceived exertion or duration of exercise, but a large confound in this study is that it was conducted during Ramadan (and the fed group, due to eating in the morning, ate 600 more kcal daily for the first half of Ramadan).[3]
One other study comparing 6 weeks of fasted or carbohydrate preload training failed to note any significant differences in fat mass or body mass in physically active males given a standardized diet.[5]
Mixed results on whether fasted training can induce more fat loss over a period of time (from selective usage of fatty acids over glucose), with the one controlled study showing promise also having significant differences in food intake.
Fasted training, independent of caloric intake, may not confer any additional fat burning or weight loss effects over a period of time despite increase percentage of fatty acids being used as fuel.
Muscle Mass
Acutely, muscle protein breakdown is enhanced in response to aerobic exercise.[12] and over time increases the overall rates of protein turnover.[13]
Lack of differences in skeletal muscle mass may be a result of muscle cells appearing to 'prime' themselves for anabolism in response to fasted training, a conclusion derived from a study noting that carbohydrate-fed endurance training was associated with chronically activated eEF2 and fasted training associated with more responsiveness to eEF2 activation despite not inherently being activated;[14] eEF2 being an intermediate in protein synthesis.[15] A reduction of the activity of both anabolic and catabolic genes has been noted in response to caloric pre-loads.[16]
Fasted training appears to enhance both skeletal muscle breakdown and prime skeletal muscles for apparent anabolism on a genetic level; overall turnover is upregulated in response to fasted training, and to a lesser degree in fed training (although turnover is enhanced per se in response to exercise).
50 days of fasted cardio (relative to the same cardio exercise in a fed state) did not result in any significant differences in lean body mass, despite consuming 600kcal less than the fed state cardio; both groups remained relatively constant.[3]
Studies that assess lean mass over time and compare fed to fasted aerobic training really do not note any differences in muscle mass chronically.
Despite the increasing interest in ketogenic or low-carbohydrate diets among endurance athletes, there’s little evidence that these dietary strategies provide a performance advantage compared to higher-carbohydrate diets.
Ketogenic and low-carbohydrate diets improve body composition and increase fat-burning capacity and may be useful for increasing low- to moderate-intensity exercise performance.[33] However, even after a period of keto-adaptation (i.e., 3 weeks to 4 months on a ketogenic diet), high-intensity endurance exercise performance is impaired, exercise economy is reduced, and the ability to utilize glucose and glycogen as a fuel source may be diminished in some people.[33]
There are claims that the benefits of a ketogenic diet for endurance performance may be due to a “glycogen sparing” effect. In other words, a higher fat-burning capacity during exercise should allow athletes to save their limited glycogen stores for high-intensity efforts, especially near the end of a competition. However, the higher postexercise glycogen levels that have been observed in athletes on a ketogenic diet might actually be due to a reduced ability to utilize glycogen, which is not necessarily a beneficial adaptation.[34]
Furthermore, when it comes to energy provision, carbohydrates are a more efficient fuel source — providing more ATP per unit of oxygen consumed than an equivalent amount of fat. This may be why some studies find that short-term keto-adaptation reduces exercise economy in athletes.[33]
Adequate rest and muscle recovery are crucial for aerobic exercise performance. One of the main factors influencing recovery is sleep, a lack of which has been shown to impair physical and mental recovery from exercise.[23] Other factors that can positively influence recovery include nutrient timing and choice of foods,[24] limiting alcohol exposure,[25] avoiding overtraining,[26], and reducing emotional and psychological stress and fatigue.
The environment can also influence aerobic exercise performance; heat and cold, humidity, air temperature, wind speed, altitude, and even clothing are all factors to consider when exercising in extreme conditions.[18][27]
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