Glutamine
•Last Updated: January 9 2023
Glutamine is an amino acid that may benefit the body when it is under a period of great physical stress, such as after surgery, burns, or radiation exposure.
Glutamine is most often used for
Last Updated: January 9 2023
Glutamine is one of the 20 amino acids that make up all proteins. It is conditionally essential, meaning it is needed during traumatic conditions like illness, injury, or surgery. It is the most abundant amino acid in blood serum, and it tends to decrease in proportion to the acuteness of trauma to the body.[88][89]
The main benefit of glutamine is improved outcomes in trauma, burns, and injuries.[90] It has also been found to affect nitrogen balance (i.e., reduce protein depletion), improve immune function, and reduce infectious morbidity in adults going in for abdominal surgery for peritonitis (an infection of the abdomen).[91] In addition, glutamine may reduce gut permeability (lactulose/mannitol ratio), inflammation (IL-6, TNF-ɑ, C-reactive protein), hospital stay length, and mortality.[88]
In people undergoing radiation therapy for head and neck cancer, glutamine reduced the severity of oral mucositis. This painful condition results from the death of the cells lining the mouth and is often a reason to halt the course of radiation. Post-radiation, glutamine was found to reduce the use of analgesic opioids, nasogastric feeding, and treatment interruptions.[92]
In addition, glutamine may reduce symptom scores of irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) alongside a low-FODMAP diet.[93] Glutamine was found to have no significant effect in the context of Crohn’s disease, though sample sizes were small.[94][95][96][97]
Glutamine is commonly marketed as an exercise supplement, but there are no consistent observed effects on athletic performance from supplementation with glutamine. However, glutamine may increase white blood cell counts and benefit weight reduction.[98]
Glutamine may improve digestion by strengthening the intestinal barrier by reducing intestinal permeability, aiding tight junctions, and promoting enterocyte growth (cells that line the intestines).[90]
Glutamine is the preferred source of fuel for enterocytes as well as lymphocytes, an important cell of the immune system.[93]
Glutamine may act as an anti-inflammatory agent by reducing interleukin 6 (IL-6), tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-ɑ), and C-reactive protein levels. It may also help produce glutathione, the body’s principal antioxidant.[90][88]
Note that Glutamine is also known as:
- L-Glutamine
Glutamine should not be confused with:
- Glutamate
- Alanylglutamine (Sustamine)
Supplementation of L-glutamine tends to be dosed at 5 g or above, with higher doses being advised against due to excessive ammonia in serum. The lowest dose found to increase ammonia in serum has been 0.75 g/kg, or approximately 51 g for a 150 lb individual.
Due to the relative inefficacy of glutamine supplementation for increasing muscle mass, the optimal dosage is not known. The above recommended doses are sufficient for intestinal health reasons and for attenuating a possible relative glutamine deficiency (seen in instances of low protein intake or veganism).
Research FeedRead all studies
Glutamine supplementation does not affect body composition, but it may accelerate strength recovery from resistance-training sessions and reduce the occurrence of infections in hard-training endurance athletes.
Glutamine is the most abundant amino acid in your body. Your body can synthesize it, so it is not an essential amino acid (EAA), but your requirements may at time outpace your rate of synthesis, making glutamine conditionally essential. Historically, however, glutamine has been considered conditionally essential only in the critically hurt or sick — burn victims and other people in whom physical stress is exceptionally high and catabolism (body-tissue breakdown) rampant...
1.^Lenders CM, Liu S, Wilmore DW, Sampson L, Dougherty LW, Spiegelman D, Willett WCEvaluation of a novel food composition database that includes glutamine and other amino acids derived from gene sequencing dataEur J Clin Nutr.(2009 Dec)
4.^Baxter JH, Phillips RR, Dowlati L, Johns PWGlutamine in commercial liquid nutritional productsJ Agric Food Chem.(2004 Aug 11)
5.^Swails WS, Bell SJ, Borlase BC, Forse RA, Blackburn GLGlutamine content of whole proteins: implications for enteral formulasNutr Clin Pract.(1992 Apr)
6.^Alanyl-glutamine counteracts the depletion of free glutamine and the postoperative decline in protein synthesis in skeletal muscle
9.^Gleeson MDosing and efficacy of glutamine supplementation in human exercise and sport trainingJ Nutr.(2008 Oct)
10.^Fujita T, Yanaga KAssociation between glutamine extraction and release of citrulline and glycine by the human small intestineLife Sci.(2007 Apr 24)
15.^Boza JJ, Dangin M, Moënnoz D, Montigon F, Vuichoud J, Jarret A, Pouteau E, Gremaud G, Oguey-Araymon S, Courtois D, Woupeyi A, Finot PA, Ballèvre OFree and protein-bound glutamine have identical splanchnic extraction in healthy human volunteersAm J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol.(2001 Jul)
16.^Khogali SE, Pringle SD, Weryk BV, Rennie MJIs glutamine beneficial in ischemic heart diseaseNutrition.(2002 Feb)
17.^Wischmeyer PE, Vanden Hoek TL, Li C, Shao Z, Ren H, Riehm J, Becker LBGlutamine preserves cardiomyocyte viability and enhances recovery of contractile function after ischemia-reperfusion injuryJPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr.(2003 Mar-Apr)
18.^Wischmeyer PE, Jayakar D, Williams U, Singleton KD, Riehm J, Bacha EA, Jeevanandam V, Christians U, Serkova NSingle dose of glutamine enhances myocardial tissue metabolism, glutathione content, and improves myocardial function after ischemia-reperfusion injuryJPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr.(2003 Nov-Dec)
19.^Bolotin G, Raman J, Williams U, Bacha E, Kocherginsky M, Jeevanandam VGlutamine improves myocardial function following ischemia-reperfusion injuryAsian Cardiovasc Thorac Ann.(2007 Dec)
20.^Leichtweis S, Ji LLGlutathione deficiency intensifies ischaemia-reperfusion induced cardiac dysfunction and oxidative stressActa Physiol Scand.(2001 May)
21.^Wischmeyer PEGlutamine: the first clinically relevant pharmacological regulator of heat shock protein expressionCurr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care.(2006 May)
22.^Domanski MJ, Mahaffey K, Hasselblad V, Brener SJ, Smith PK, Hillis G, Engoren M, Alexander JH, Levy JH, Chaitman BR, Broderick S, Mack MJ, Pieper KS, Farkouh MEAssociation of myocardial enzyme elevation and survival following coronary artery bypass graft surgeryJAMA.(2011 Feb 9)
23.^Sufit A, Weitzel LB, Hamiel C, Queensland K, Dauber I, Rooyackers O, Wischmeyer PEPharmacologically dosed oral glutamine reduces myocardial injury in patients undergoing cardiac surgery: a randomized pilot feasibility trialJPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr.(2012 Sep)
24.^Lomivorotov VV, Efremov SM, Shmirev VA, Ponomarev DN, Lomivorotov VN, Karaskov AMGlutamine is cardioprotective in patients with ischemic heart disease following cardiopulmonary bypassHeart Surg Forum.(2011 Dec)
25.^Awad S, Fearon KC, Macdonald IA, Lobo DNA randomized cross-over study of the metabolic and hormonal responses following two preoperative conditioning drinksNutrition.(2011 Sep)
27.^Parry-Billings M, Evans J, Calder PC, Newsholme EADoes glutamine contribute to immunosuppression after major burnsLancet.(1990 Sep 1)
29.^MacLennan PA, Smith K, Weryk B, Watt PW, Rennie MJInhibition of protein breakdown by glutamine in perfused rat skeletal muscleFEBS Lett.(1988 Sep 12)
30.^MacLennan PA, Brown RA, Rennie MJA positive relationship between protein synthetic rate and intracellular glutamine concentration in perfused rat skeletal muscleFEBS Lett.(1987 May 4)
31.^Zhou X, Thompson JRRegulation of protein turnover by glutamine in heat-shocked skeletal myotubesBiochim Biophys Acta.(1997 Jun 27)
32.^Millward DJ, Jepson MM, Omer AMuscle glutamine concentration and protein turnover in vivo in malnutrition and in endotoxemiaMetabolism.(1989 Aug)
33.^Januszkiewicz A, Essén P, McNurlan MA, Calder GA, Andersson K, Wernerman J, Garlick PJEffect of a short-term infusion of glutamine on muscle protein metabolism postoperativelyClin Nutr.(1996 Oct)
34.^Wusteman M, Elia MEffect of glutamine infusions on glutamine concentration and protein synthetic rate in rat muscleJPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr.(1991 Sep-Oct)
36.^Candow DG, Chilibeck PD, Burke DG, Davison KS, Smith-Palmer TEffect of glutamine supplementation combined with resistance training in young adultsEur J Appl Physiol.(2001 Dec)
37.^Lehmkuhl M, Malone M, Justice B, Trone G, Pistilli E, Vinci D, Haff EE, Kilgore JL, Haff GGThe effects of 8 weeks of creatine monohydrate and glutamine supplementation on body composition and performance measuresJ Strength Cond Res.(2003 Aug)
38.^Wilkinson SB, Kim PL, Armstrong D, Phillips SMAddition of glutamine to essential amino acids and carbohydrate does not enhance anabolism in young human males following exerciseAppl Physiol Nutr Metab.(2006 Oct)
39.^Robson PJ, Blannin AK, Walsh NP, Castell LM, Gleeson MEffects of exercise intensity, duration and recovery on in vitro neutrophil function in male athletesInt J Sports Med.(1999 Feb)
40.^Babij P, Matthews SM, Rennie MJChanges in blood ammonia, lactate and amino acids in relation to workload during bicycle ergometer exercise in manEur J Appl Physiol Occup Physiol.(1983)
41.^Gleeson M, Walsh NP, Blannin AK, Robson PJ, Cook L, Donnelly AE, Day SHThe effect of severe eccentric exercise-induced muscle damage on plasma elastase, glutamine and zinc concentrationsEur J Appl Physiol Occup Physiol.(1998 May)
42.^Parry-Billings M, Budgett R, Koutedakis Y, Blomstrand E, Brooks S, Williams C, Calder PC, Pilling S, Baigrie R, Newsholme EAPlasma amino acid concentrations in the overtraining syndrome: possible effects on the immune systemMed Sci Sports Exerc.(1992 Dec)
43.^Rennie MJ, Edwards RH, Krywawych S, Davies CT, Halliday D, Waterlow JC, Millward DJEffect of exercise on protein turnover in manClin Sci (Lond).(1981 Nov)
44.^Contrasting plasma free amino acid patterns in elite athletes: association with fatigue and infection
45.^Cury-Boaventura MF, Levada-Pires AC, Folador A, Gorjão R, Alba-Loureiro TC, Hirabara SM, Peres FP, Silva PR, Curi R, Pithon-Curi TCEffects of exercise on leukocyte death: prevention by hydrolyzed whey protein enriched with glutamine dipeptideEur J Appl Physiol.(2008 Jun)
46.^Hiscock N, Petersen EW, Krzywkowski K, Boza J, Halkjaer-Kristensen J, Pedersen BKGlutamine supplementation further enhances exercise-induced plasma IL-6J Appl Physiol.(2003 Jul)
47.^Parry-Billings M, Blomstrand E, McAndrew N, Newsholme EAA communicational link between skeletal muscle, brain, and cells of the immune systemInt J Sports Med.(1990 May)
48.^Antonio J, Sanders MS, Kalman D, Woodgate D, Street CThe effects of high-dose glutamine ingestion on weightlifting performanceJ Strength Cond Res.(2002 Feb)
49.^Carvalho-Peixoto J, Alves RC, Cameron LCGlutamine and carbohydrate supplements reduce ammonemia increase during endurance field exerciseAppl Physiol Nutr Metab.(2007 Dec)
51.^Haub MD, Potteiger JA, Nau KL, Webster MJ, Zebas CJAcute L-glutamine ingestion does not improve maximal effort exerciseJ Sports Med Phys Fitness.(1998 Sep)
52.^Claeyssens S, Bouteloup-Demange C, Gachon P, Hecketsweiler B, Lerebours E, Lavoinne A, Déchelotte PEffect of enteral glutamine on leucine, phenylalanine and glutamine metabolism in hypercortisolemic subjectsAm J Physiol Endocrinol Metab.(2000 May)
53.^Effect of oral glutamine on whole body carbohydrate storage during recovery from exhaustive exercise
54.^Bowtell JL, Gelly K, Jackman ML, Patel A, Simeoni M, Rennie MJEffect of oral glutamine on whole body carbohydrate storage during recovery from exhaustive exerciseJ Appl Physiol.(1999 Jun)
55.^Coëffier M, Claeyssens S, Hecketsweiler B, Lavoinne A, Ducrotté P, Déchelotte PEnteral glutamine stimulates protein synthesis and decreases ubiquitin mRNA level in human gut mucosaAm J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol.(2003 Aug)
56.^Li N, Lewis P, Samuelson D, Liboni K, Neu JGlutamine regulates Caco-2 cell tight junction proteinsAm J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol.(2004 Sep)
57.^Potsic B, Holliday N, Lewis P, Samuelson D, DeMarco V, Neu JGlutamine supplementation and deprivation: effect on artificially reared rat small intestinal morphologyPediatr Res.(2002 Sep)
60.^Seth A, Basuroy S, Sheth P, Rao RKL-Glutamine ameliorates acetaldehyde-induced increase in paracellular permeability in Caco-2 cell monolayerAm J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol.(2004 Sep)
61.^Bai M, Jiang Z, Liu YGlutamine dipeptide attenuate mucosal atrophic changes and preservation of gut barrier function following 5-FU interventionZhonghua Wai Ke Za Zhi.(1996 Jun)
62.^Chun H, Sasaki M, Fujiyama Y, Bamba TEffect of enteral glutamine on intestinal permeability and bacterial translocation after abdominal radiation injury in ratsJ Gastroenterol.(1997 Apr)
63.^Dugan ME, McBurney MILuminal glutamine perfusion alters endotoxin-related changes in ileal permeability of the pigletJPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr.(1995 Jan-Feb)
64.^Sevastiadou S, Malamitsi-Puchner A, Costalos C, Skouroliakou M, Briana DD, Antsaklis A, Roma-Giannikou EThe impact of oral glutamine supplementation on the intestinal permeability and incidence of necrotizing enterocolitis/septicemia in premature neonatesJ Matern Fetal Neonatal Med.(2011 Oct)
65.^Lima NL, Soares AM, Mota RM, Monteiro HS, Guerrant RL, Lima AAWasting and intestinal barrier function in children taking alanyl-glutamine-supplemented enteral formulaJ Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr.(2007 Mar)
66.^van den Berg A, Fetter WP, Westerbeek EA, van der Vegt IM, van der Molen HR, van Elburg RMThe effect of glutamine-enriched enteral nutrition on intestinal permeability in very-low-birth-weight infants: a randomized controlled trialJPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr.(2006 Sep-Oct)
67.^Luo M, Bazargan N, Griffith DP, Estívariz CF, Leader LM, Easley KA, Daignault NM, Hao L, Meddings JB, Galloway JR, Blumberg JB, Jones DP, Ziegler TRMetabolic effects of enteral versus parenteral alanyl-glutamine dipeptide administration in critically ill patients receiving enteral feeding: a pilot studyClin Nutr.(2008 Apr)
68.^Li Y, Yu Z, Liu F, Tan L, Wu B, Li JOral glutamine ameliorates chemotherapy-induced changes of intestinal permeability and does not interfere with the antitumor effect of chemotherapy in patients with breast cancer: a prospective randomized trialTumori.(2006 Sep-Oct)
69.^Den Hond E, Hiele M, Peeters M, Ghoos Y, Rutgeerts PEffect of long-term oral glutamine supplements on small intestinal permeability in patients with Crohn's diseaseJPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr.(1999 Jan-Feb)
70.^Akobeng AK, Miller V, Thomas AG, Richmond KGlutamine supplementation and intestinal permeability in Crohn's diseaseJPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr.(2000 May-Jun)
71.^Glutamine-supplemented total parenteral nutrition enhances T-lymphocyte response in surgical patients undergoing colorectal resection
72.^Ockenga J, Borchert K, Stüber E, Lochs H, Manns MP, Bischoff SCGlutamine-enriched total parenteral nutrition in patients with inflammatory bowel diseaseEur J Clin Nutr.(2005 Nov)
73.^Benjamin J, Makharia G, Ahuja V, Anand Rajan KD, Kalaivani M, Gupta SD, Joshi YKGlutamine and whey protein improve intestinal permeability and morphology in patients with Crohn's disease: a randomized controlled trialDig Dis Sci.(2012 Apr)
74.^van der Hulst RR, van Kreel BK, von Meyenfeldt MF, Brummer RJ, Arends JW, Deutz NE, Soeters PBGlutamine and the preservation of gut integrityLancet.(1993 May 29)
75.^Silva AC, Santos-Neto MS, Soares AM, Fonteles MC, Guerrant RL, Lima AAEfficacy of a glutamine-based oral rehydration solution on the electrolyte and water absorption in a rabbit model of secretory diarrhea induced by cholera toxinJ Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr.(1998 May)
76.^Stinnett JD, Alexander JW, Watanabe C, MacMillan BG, Fischer JE, Morris MJ, Trocki O, Miskell P, Edwards L, James HPlasma and skeletal muscle amino acids following severe burn injury in patients and experimental animalsAnn Surg.(1982 Jan)
77.^Griffiths RDOutcome of critically ill patients after supplementation with glutamineNutrition.(1997 Jul-Aug)
78.^Neu J, Shenoy V, Chakrabarti RGlutamine nutrition and metabolism: where do we go from here ?FASEB J.(1996 Jun)
79.^Mittendorfer B, Gore DC, Herndon DN, Wolfe RRAccelerated glutamine synthesis in critically ill patients cannot maintain normal intramuscular free glutamine concentrationJPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr.(1999 Sep-Oct)
80.^Sacks GSEffect of glutamine-supplemented parenteral nutrition on mortality in critically ill patientsNutr Clin Pract.(2011 Feb)
81.^Eroglu AThe effect of intravenous alanyl-glutamine supplementation on plasma glutathione levels in intensive care unit trauma patients receiving enteral nutrition: the results of a randomized controlled trialAnesth Analg.(2009 Aug)
82.^Fan YP, Yu JC, Kang WM, Zhang QEffects of glutamine supplementation on patients undergoing abdominal surgeryChin Med Sci J.(2009 Mar)
83.^Shao A, Hathcock JNRisk assessment for the amino acids taurine, L-glutamine and L-arginineRegul Toxicol Pharmacol.(2008 Apr)
86.^Ward E, Picton S, Reid U, Thomas D, Gardener C, Smith M, Henderson M, Holden V, Kinsey S, Lewis I, Allgar VOral glutamine in paediatric oncology patients: a dose finding studyEur J Clin Nutr.(2003 Jan)
87.^Galera SC, Fechine FV, Teixeira MJ, Coelho ZC, de Vasconcelos RC, de Vasconcelos PRThe safety of oral use of L-glutamine in middle-aged and elderly individualsNutrition.(2010 Apr)