What is saffron?
Saffron (Crocus sativus L.) is a flowering plant in the iris family used in various domains for its taste, aroma, pigment, and medicinal properties. Saffron, sometimes called “red gold”, is the most expensive spice in the world and is produced predominantly in Iran.[4] The most prized part of the saffron plant is the dried red stigmas, which contain over 150 bioactive compounds including carotenoids (crocin, crocetin), terpenes (picrocrocin, safranol), and many other phytochemicals.[5]
What are saffron’s main benefits?
Saffron is a potent antioxidant and has shown consistent benefits for depression.[6]
When used in people with minor to moderate depression, saffron appears to be superior to placebo and comparable to some commonly used antidepressants (e.g., fluoxetine, citalopram) for reducing symptoms of depression and achieving remission.[7][8][9] Saffron may also reduce symptoms of anxiety, but this effect is less clearly established.[7]
While the evidence is promising, nearly all of the clinical trials have been conducted in Iran, sample sizes have been small (<100 people), and durations have been short (≤12 weeks). Larger and longer trials in more diverse populations are needed to further validate these effects and determine whether the benefits persist over time.
What are saffron’s main drawbacks?
The most common side effects of saffron include nausea, changes in appetite, dry mouth, headache, anxiety, and drowsiness.[10] Changes in blood parameters have been reported in studies using doses of 60–400 mg daily, although it’s not clear if this has any clinical implications.[11][10] At excessively high doses (1,200–2,000 mg), saffron has been reported to cause vomiting, diarrhea, and bleeding.[1] Supplementing with isolated crocin (one of the active compounds in saffron) at normal doses may raise serum creatinine levels, which could indicate a risk of kidney damage.[2]
There are concerns regarding the quality of saffron supplements. Some of the important compounds in saffron are sensitive to light, oxygen, and temperature. Further, the way saffron is grown, harvested, and processed can alter its chemical composition. Due to its high economic value, saffron has also historically been prone to adulteration.[12] These factors may lead to large variations in the types and amounts of active compounds found in a saffron supplement which could impact its effectiveness. Choosing a supplement that is third-party tested can help ensure its quality.
Lastly, most of the research on saffron has been conducted in Iran, and its effects on other populations require further validation.
How does saffron work?
Saffron contains many active compounds, but crocin, crocetin, safranol, and picrocrocin are considered to be the most important.[13] Following consumption, some of these compounds are transformed within the gastrointestinal tract, and the main compound found in the blood seems to be crocetin (although more research is needed in this department).[5]
Preclinical research suggests that saffron can influence the brain in a variety of ways, which likely explains its effects on mood and cognition. Saffron may prevent the reuptake of certain neurotransmitters — like dopamine, serotonin, and norepinephrine — which allows their effects to persist for longer.[8] Saffron may also interact with the HPA axis, leading to reduced levels of cortisol, and might influence neuroplasticity by increasing brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF).[9]
As an antioxidant, saffron may increase the expression of nuclear factor erythroid 2–related factor 2 (Nrf2), leading to increased levels of antioxidant enzymes and an overall improved antioxidant capacity.[14][6] In animal studies, saffron has reduced oxidative stress in brain tissue.[15]
What are other names for Saffron
- Crocus sativus L.
- Crocin (a bioactive compound in saffron)
- Turmeric (Indian saffron)
Dosage information
Saffron is usually taken at a dosage of 15 mg twice daily, for a total of 30 mg daily. While higher doses have been used, there is no clear benefit to this, and there may be an increased risk of side effects. Doses above 5 grams (5,000 mg) are considered toxic and doses above 20 grams (20,000 mg) may be lethal.[1]
Saffron supplements usually contain saffron stigma extract, which is the most studied form. However, whole dehydrated stigma or petals are sometimes used, and preliminary research suggests they may also be effective.
Crocin, one of the major active compounds in saffron, can be taken in isolation at a similar dose as saffron. While some research in the realms of depression and metabolic health has demonstrated similar effects,[2][3] there’s currently not enough evidence to support taking crocin instead of regular saffron supplements. Additionally, some research suggests that crocin may increase serum creatinine levels, which could indicate a safety risk for the kidneys.[2]
Frequently asked questions
Saffron (Crocus sativus L.) is a flowering plant in the iris family used in various domains for its taste, aroma, pigment, and medicinal properties. Saffron, sometimes called “red gold”, is the most expensive spice in the world and is produced predominantly in Iran.[4] The most prized part of the saffron plant is the dried red stigmas, which contain over 150 bioactive compounds including carotenoids (crocin, crocetin), terpenes (picrocrocin, safranol), and many other phytochemicals.[5]
The cultivation of saffron as a medicinal plant goes back to ancient times, with estimates dating back to the 12th century BC. Traditionally, the red stigmas were handpicked from the saffron flowers at dawn and allowed to dry in the shade to help preserve their aroma and therapeutic properties. The plant was used by many cultures, including Egyptian, Roman, and Greek civilizations, and continues to be an important medicine in traditional Persian, Chinese, and Ayurvedic medical systems.[33]
The traditional medicinal uses of saffron are far-reaching, with over 90 documented uses among different cultures. Some of these uses include pain relief and sedation; treating ailments of the gastrointestinal tract, lungs, eyes, nervous system, liver, circulatory system, and skin; as an aphrodisiac; and as a general tonic for strength and vitality.[33][12]
Saffron also has a long history of use for culinary and cosmetic purposes. Its pigments are extracted for adding color to foods and textiles, as well as for applying topically to brighten the skin. As a culinary spice, saffron provides a sweet, floral, and slightly bitter flavor that is used in many traditional dishes in Persian and Indian cuisine.[33]
Saffron is a potent antioxidant and has shown consistent benefits for depression.[6]
When used in people with minor to moderate depression, saffron appears to be superior to placebo and comparable to some commonly used antidepressants (e.g., fluoxetine, citalopram) for reducing symptoms of depression and achieving remission.[7][8][9] Saffron may also reduce symptoms of anxiety, but this effect is less clearly established.[7]
While the evidence is promising, nearly all of the clinical trials have been conducted in Iran, sample sizes have been small (<100 people), and durations have been short (≤12 weeks). Larger and longer trials in more diverse populations are needed to further validate these effects and determine whether the benefits persist over time.
Early research suggests that saffron may benefit sleep in various populations (including those with insomnia). Still, more research is needed to feel confident about this effect and to determine optimal dosing.
Saffron may enhance several aspects of sleep as measured by various tools, most notably the Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI). The most consistent benefits seem to be for sleep quality and sleep duration.[16][4][17] This effect appears to be the strongest in people with type 2 diabetes, but further research is needed to confirm whether this is a true effect rather than an artifact of limited research.[16]
Saffron’s effect on sleep is supported by animal research, which found that crocin and crocetin, major active compounds in saffron, significantly increased non-rapid-eye-movement (NREM) sleep in mice.[18] Additionally, safranal, another active compound in saffron, was found to dose-dependently increase sleep duration in mice.[19] However, the doses and route of administration used in these studies were not representative of human use.
Few trials have assessed the effects of saffron on symptoms of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), but preliminary research is promising.
Currently, existing trials have either compared saffron alone to methylphenidate, a common stimulant medication used in ADHD, or compared saffron plus methylphenidate to methylphenidate alone. In two trials, saffron was comparable to methylphenidate for reducing ADHD symptoms and improving executive function in children and adolescents.[20][21] In another two studies, adding saffron to methylphenidate seemed to more effectively reduce ADHD symptoms than methylphenidate alone in both children and adults.[22][23]
Saffron may inhibit the reuptake of dopamine and norepinephrine (a similar mechanism to many ADHD medications), which could explain these results.[13]
Saffron may have a beneficial effect on various aspects of cardiovascular health and metabolic health. Still, the research is mixed, and studies have included a wide range of patient populations, doses, and formulations (e.g., saffron extract, whole saffron powder, isolated crocin), which makes it difficult to draw any clear conclusions.
Some evidence suggests that saffron can affect lipid profiles, including reductions in triglycerides, total cholesterol, and low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol. However, this effect may not be observed when it matters most: in people with elevated lipid levels or type 2 diabetes.[24][2]
Saffron may improve glycemic control, with some research finding reductions in both hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c) and fasting glucose, including in people with type 2 diabetes.[24][2]
Saffron might reduce blood pressure, but most research that finds a reduction in systolic blood pressure has found no change in diastolic blood pressure.[24][2]
Saffron has been used traditionally as an aphrodisiac, and preliminary clinical research seems to support this use; however, replication of existing trials is needed.
Self-reported improvements in sexual function have been observed in a variety of contexts. For men with erectile dysfunction, antidepressant-induced sexual dysfunction, or hypoactive sexual desire disorder, saffron may increase erections and overall satisfaction with intercourse.[25][26][27] In women with antidepressant-induced sexual dysfunction, saffron was reported to increase vaginal lubrication and arousal and to reduce pain with intercourse.[26]
Saffron may have neuroprotective effects that could benefit a variety of neurodegenerative diseases, such as Alzheimer’s disease, but research is too preliminary to draw any meaningful conclusions.
Saffron might improve cognition in people with Alzheimer’s disease, with limited research suggesting that saffron is more effective than placebo and provides similar benefits to those seen with commonly used medications like donepezil and memantine.[28][29][30] However, it’s important to note that the benefits observed for both saffron and conventional medicine were limited, either providing marginal improvements in cognitive function or simply delaying further cognitive decline.
In vitro research suggests that saffron could theoretically improve the function and survival of neurons in the brain by inhibiting the breakdown of acetylcholine, reducing glutamine signaling, and preventing the formation of amyloid-beta fibrils (part of the pathogenesis of Alzheimer’s disease). Animal research has also found that saffron can reduce oxidative stress markers in the brain. Regardless, none of these effects have been observed in humans, and further research is needed to determine whether saffron has a role in Alzheimer’s disease.[15][31]
Preliminary research has found that saffron may benefit eye health, likely thanks to its content of antioxidant carotenoids — primarily crocin and crocetin. However, more research is needed to confirm these findings.
In people with age-related or diabetic macular degeneration, saffron supplementation may improve retinal function, leading to improved visual acuity (the ability to identify increasingly smaller letters from a distance). When used in addition to standard therapy in people with glaucoma, saffron was found to further reduce pressure within the eye.[32]
The most common side effects of saffron include nausea, changes in appetite, dry mouth, headache, anxiety, and drowsiness.[10] Changes in blood parameters have been reported in studies using doses of 60–400 mg daily, although it’s not clear if this has any clinical implications.[11][10] At excessively high doses (1,200–2,000 mg), saffron has been reported to cause vomiting, diarrhea, and bleeding.[1] Supplementing with isolated crocin (one of the active compounds in saffron) at normal doses may raise serum creatinine levels, which could indicate a risk of kidney damage.[2]
There are concerns regarding the quality of saffron supplements. Some of the important compounds in saffron are sensitive to light, oxygen, and temperature. Further, the way saffron is grown, harvested, and processed can alter its chemical composition. Due to its high economic value, saffron has also historically been prone to adulteration.[12] These factors may lead to large variations in the types and amounts of active compounds found in a saffron supplement which could impact its effectiveness. Choosing a supplement that is third-party tested can help ensure its quality.
Lastly, most of the research on saffron has been conducted in Iran, and its effects on other populations require further validation.
Saffron contains many active compounds, but crocin, crocetin, safranol, and picrocrocin are considered to be the most important.[13] Following consumption, some of these compounds are transformed within the gastrointestinal tract, and the main compound found in the blood seems to be crocetin (although more research is needed in this department).[5]
Preclinical research suggests that saffron can influence the brain in a variety of ways, which likely explains its effects on mood and cognition. Saffron may prevent the reuptake of certain neurotransmitters — like dopamine, serotonin, and norepinephrine — which allows their effects to persist for longer.[8] Saffron may also interact with the HPA axis, leading to reduced levels of cortisol, and might influence neuroplasticity by increasing brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF).[9]
As an antioxidant, saffron may increase the expression of nuclear factor erythroid 2–related factor 2 (Nrf2), leading to increased levels of antioxidant enzymes and an overall improved antioxidant capacity.[14][6] In animal studies, saffron has reduced oxidative stress in brain tissue.[15]
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