Immune Health

    Written by:
    Daryl Nault, Bill Willis

    Fact-checked

    by:

    James Gaylor, Natalka Roshak
    Last Updated: October 13, 2024

    Immune health refers to the body's ability to resist potentially harmful microorganisms such as viruses and bacteria, and includes both innate and acquired immunity.

    Immune Health falls under the Immunity & Infectious Disease category.

    30 references on this page
    13,556 participants in 124 trials and 6 meta-analyses

    What is immune health?

    Immune health describes the immune system’s ability to heal and preserve bodily function when confronted by infection, injury (wound healing), and even malignancy. Our body relies on multiple levels of defense. These levels include physical barriers (skin and mucous membranes), inflammatory response inflammation, cellular response, and cellular adaptation.[1] Moderation and balance in these different levels of defense are key to optimal immune health. When the immune response is inadequate, this can open the door for infection by harmful pathogens. In contrast, an overzealous immune response could break tolerance of the immune system to ‘self’ molecules in the body, resulting in autoimmune disease. When it comes to immune health, balance is the key.[2]

    How is immune health measured?

    Healthy immune response includes the ability to accurately determine what is harmful to the body, adapt to changes in the environment, manage infections, and retain memory of what foreign cells cause damage.[2] One approach to quantifying immune health is by measuring biomarkers in blood that reflect each of these facets of the immune response. These biomarkers may include: leukocytes, lymphocytes, cytokines, T-cells, natural killer (NK) cells, monocytes, C-reactive protein, and antibodies. An important consideration here is that these biomarkers may be elevated as part of a healthy immune response, for example, to an infection. Concern may be warranted if there is an abnormally high level of inflammatory biomarkers or if they’ve been circulating at a higher than average level for an extended time.[3] [4]

    Beyond blood tests, perceived immune status is a subjective assessment that may be more accessible to those outside of the clinical setting. The Immune Status Questionnaire (ISQ) was published in 2019, and is a validated self-assessment that may help individuals determine if they should seek medical attention, make lifestyle changes, or take further action to improve immune health.[5]

    How does physical activity affect immune health?

    Current research suggests that when it comes to exercise for immune health, moderation, balance, and consistency are key. Moderate exercise has been shown to have numerous benefits on immune health. Although physical activity is a stressor that does incite an immune response, the degree of the immune response and whether it’s harmful or helpful to immune health can be situationally dependent.

    The current understanding is that consistent, moderate to vigorous intensity exercise (<60 minutes in length) is beneficial for immune health and can enhance adaptive immunity, thereby improving protection from community acquired illness and increasing the efficacy of vaccines.[6][7] Muscle contraction is also beneficial to immune health by releasing helpful immune mediators, aiding in lymphatic drainage of waste products, and possibly even diversifying the gut microbiome.[1][8] On the other hand, extreme exercise (especially in the untrained) can be detrimental to immune health. When healing from extreme exercise, the immune system becomes preoccupied and can devote fewer resources to defense.[9]

    Have any supplements been studied for immune health?

    The effects of many supplements on immune health markers have been studied, and the research is ongoing. As of 2022, some of the most frequently studied supplements for immune health include Fish Oil, Vitamin C, Colostrum, Spirulina, Astaxanthin, Reishi, Vitamin D, Vitamin E, Boron, Conjugated Linoleic Acid, and Garlic. Many of these supplements have been studied for their ability to improve immunity by limiting inflammation or by enhancing the body’s defense against damaging compounds, such as free radicals. Two exceptions to this list are Vitamin D and Garlic, both of which are primarily known for their ability to help the body manage or resist infections. A group of supplements that individually have been studied to a lesser degree on this topic, but that collectively present a noteworthy body of evidence, are adaptogens. Adaptogenic plants (such as Eleuthero, Ginseng, Ashwagandha, Rhodiola rosea, and Astragalus) are thought to work primarily through their ability to help the body adapt to stress.[10]

    How can diet affect immune health?

    Diet can impact most physical functioning, so it’s no surprise that it can also play a role in immune health. Similar to the ways supplements have been studied, the focus has been on the ability of nutrients to either reduce susceptibility to infection or to enhance healing through modulating inflammation and oxidation. Current research suggests that when part of the diet, plant-based compounds such as flavonoids may reduce incidence, duration, and severity of upper respiratory infection.[11] Foods like blueberries and grapes tend to be high in flavonoids (anthocyanidins and flavonols), which have antioxidant properties that may enhance immune health. Beyond flavonoids and their antioxidant capacity, complete plant-based diets, such as the Autoimmune Protocol and vegan diets, are full of phytochemicals, fiber, vitamins, and minerals, all of which can contribute to immune health.[12] Alterations in the gut microbiome may also play a role in immune health,[13] which could explain why diets that include probiotic-rich foods, such as Kefir, have potential immune-enhancing effects

    What other factors affect immune health?

    Stress exposure, sleep, and metabolic health all have both distinct and overlapping effects on immune health. Sleep has a profound effect on the immune system, and consistently getting enough of it can improve the ability to fight off infections (or avoid them altogether) and increase the efficacy of vaccines.[14] Excessive stress (either psychological or physiological) can have positive or negative effects on immune health, depending on the type of exposure. For example, temporary stress from exercise or public speaking can have positive effects on immune health,[15] while chronic stress exposure can impair immune health by limiting the ability of the immune system to fight off infections and/or increasing the risk of autoimmune disease.[16] Metabolic health — in particular the ability of the body to regulate blood sugar levels — also plays a significant role in immune health, since impaired blood sugar control and insulin resistance have widespread negative effects on the immune system.[17]

    How does stress (and rest) affect immune health?What is the role of metabolic regulation in immune health?

    Examine Database: Immune Health

    Fish Oil
    Colostrum
    Vitamin C
    Spirulina
    Astaxanthin
    Reishi
    Vitamin D
    Vitamin E
    Boron
    Conjugated Linoleic Acid
    Garlic
    Hesperidin
    Vegan Diet
    Chlorella
    Coenzyme Q10
    Eleuthero
    Glutamine
    Grape Juice
    L-Carnitine
    Lactobacillus Casei
    Lactobacillus Reuteri
    N-Acetylcysteine
    Panax Ginseng (Korean Ginseng)
    Quercetin
    Saffron
    Tetradecyl Thioacetic Acid
    Theanine
    Alpha-Lipoic Acid
    Ashwagandha
    Astragalus
    Autoimmune Protocol (AIP) Diet
    Black Ginger
    Blueberry
    Cat's claw
    Citrulline
    Cocoa Extract
    Creatine
    Curcumin
    DHEA
    Echinacea
    Elderberry
    Feverfew
    Glutathione
    Guduchi
    Iodine
    Kefir
    King of Bitters
    Mediterranean Diet
    Perilla
    Phlebodium aureum
    Pomegranate seed oil
    Resistance Training
    Rose Hip
    Tongkat Ali
    Tulsi
    Vitamins E And C
    Zinc

    Research FeedRead all studies

    Frequently asked questions

    What is immune health?

    Immune health describes the immune system’s ability to heal and preserve bodily function when confronted by infection, injury (wound healing), and even malignancy. Our body relies on multiple levels of defense. These levels include physical barriers (skin and mucous membranes), inflammatory response inflammation, cellular response, and cellular adaptation.[1] Moderation and balance in these different levels of defense are key to optimal immune health. When the immune response is inadequate, this can open the door for infection by harmful pathogens. In contrast, an overzealous immune response could break tolerance of the immune system to ‘self’ molecules in the body, resulting in autoimmune disease. When it comes to immune health, balance is the key.[2]

    How is immune health measured?

    Healthy immune response includes the ability to accurately determine what is harmful to the body, adapt to changes in the environment, manage infections, and retain memory of what foreign cells cause damage.[2] One approach to quantifying immune health is by measuring biomarkers in blood that reflect each of these facets of the immune response. These biomarkers may include: leukocytes, lymphocytes, cytokines, T-cells, natural killer (NK) cells, monocytes, C-reactive protein, and antibodies. An important consideration here is that these biomarkers may be elevated as part of a healthy immune response, for example, to an infection. Concern may be warranted if there is an abnormally high level of inflammatory biomarkers or if they’ve been circulating at a higher than average level for an extended time.[3] [4]

    Beyond blood tests, perceived immune status is a subjective assessment that may be more accessible to those outside of the clinical setting. The Immune Status Questionnaire (ISQ) was published in 2019, and is a validated self-assessment that may help individuals determine if they should seek medical attention, make lifestyle changes, or take further action to improve immune health.[5]

    How does physical activity affect immune health?

    Current research suggests that when it comes to exercise for immune health, moderation, balance, and consistency are key. Moderate exercise has been shown to have numerous benefits on immune health. Although physical activity is a stressor that does incite an immune response, the degree of the immune response and whether it’s harmful or helpful to immune health can be situationally dependent.

    The current understanding is that consistent, moderate to vigorous intensity exercise (<60 minutes in length) is beneficial for immune health and can enhance adaptive immunity, thereby improving protection from community acquired illness and increasing the efficacy of vaccines.[6][7] Muscle contraction is also beneficial to immune health by releasing helpful immune mediators, aiding in lymphatic drainage of waste products, and possibly even diversifying the gut microbiome.[1][8] On the other hand, extreme exercise (especially in the untrained) can be detrimental to immune health. When healing from extreme exercise, the immune system becomes preoccupied and can devote fewer resources to defense.[9]

    Have any supplements been studied for immune health?

    The effects of many supplements on immune health markers have been studied, and the research is ongoing. As of 2022, some of the most frequently studied supplements for immune health include Fish Oil, Vitamin C, Colostrum, Spirulina, Astaxanthin, Reishi, Vitamin D, Vitamin E, Boron, Conjugated Linoleic Acid, and Garlic. Many of these supplements have been studied for their ability to improve immunity by limiting inflammation or by enhancing the body’s defense against damaging compounds, such as free radicals. Two exceptions to this list are Vitamin D and Garlic, both of which are primarily known for their ability to help the body manage or resist infections. A group of supplements that individually have been studied to a lesser degree on this topic, but that collectively present a noteworthy body of evidence, are adaptogens. Adaptogenic plants (such as Eleuthero, Ginseng, Ashwagandha, Rhodiola rosea, and Astragalus) are thought to work primarily through their ability to help the body adapt to stress.[10]

    How can diet affect immune health?

    Diet can impact most physical functioning, so it’s no surprise that it can also play a role in immune health. Similar to the ways supplements have been studied, the focus has been on the ability of nutrients to either reduce susceptibility to infection or to enhance healing through modulating inflammation and oxidation. Current research suggests that when part of the diet, plant-based compounds such as flavonoids may reduce incidence, duration, and severity of upper respiratory infection.[11] Foods like blueberries and grapes tend to be high in flavonoids (anthocyanidins and flavonols), which have antioxidant properties that may enhance immune health. Beyond flavonoids and their antioxidant capacity, complete plant-based diets, such as the Autoimmune Protocol and vegan diets, are full of phytochemicals, fiber, vitamins, and minerals, all of which can contribute to immune health.[12] Alterations in the gut microbiome may also play a role in immune health,[13] which could explain why diets that include probiotic-rich foods, such as Kefir, have potential immune-enhancing effects

    What other factors affect immune health?

    Stress exposure, sleep, and metabolic health all have both distinct and overlapping effects on immune health. Sleep has a profound effect on the immune system, and consistently getting enough of it can improve the ability to fight off infections (or avoid them altogether) and increase the efficacy of vaccines.[14] Excessive stress (either psychological or physiological) can have positive or negative effects on immune health, depending on the type of exposure. For example, temporary stress from exercise or public speaking can have positive effects on immune health,[15] while chronic stress exposure can impair immune health by limiting the ability of the immune system to fight off infections and/or increasing the risk of autoimmune disease.[16] Metabolic health — in particular the ability of the body to regulate blood sugar levels — also plays a significant role in immune health, since impaired blood sugar control and insulin resistance have widespread negative effects on the immune system.[17]

    How does stress (and rest) affect immune health?

    When it comes to the immune system, the effects of stress cannot be overlooked. The immune system interacts with our hormonal regulation and our nervous system in ways that we’re only beginning to understand. In fact, some of the same biomarkers that are used to evaluate immune health (such as C-reactive protein and interleukins 6 & 8) are also considered to be biomarkers of chronic stress.[18] Although exposure to certain types of stress can be healthy (exercise, adverse circumstances that make us stronger and more resilient), our stress-response is not designed to be activated all the time, and if it is, that can have negative effects on immune health. Chronic stress-induced increases in the hormone cortisol can suppress the immune system’s ability to fight off infection.[1] Environmental stressors, such as pollution, may have similar immune-suppressing effects too.[19] Some stress may be unavoidable, so getting adequate rest/recovery and managing the stress response can also be an effective approach for improving immune health.[20] Mindfulness meditation may also improve immune biomarkers through managing the stress response.[21] Similarly, immersion in nature and natural environments (like forests), also may enhance immune health, possibly through stress reduction.[22][23] More high-quality evidence is still needed on many of these interventions, but based on what we know, any activity that optimizes our relationship with stress is likely to improve immune health in turn.

    What is the role of metabolic regulation in immune health?

    Maintaining metabolic health is another important factor for having a healthy, well-functioning immune system. Under resting conditions, immune cells such as lymphocytes burn a combination of proteins, fats, and glucose for energy. During an active immune response, much of the fatty and amino acids that are utilized as fuel under resting conditions are instead used to synthesize proteins and lipids required for cell growth, causing an increased reliance on glucose metabolism for fuel.[24] The flexibility required to undergo this whole-sale metabolic shift from oxidative metabolism under resting conditions to glycolysis when the immune system becomes activated is an important factor for immune health. There is mounting evidence that immune cell function tends to suffer when “metabolic flexibility” is impaired.[25]

    Healthy regulation of glucose homeostasis is key to ensuring adequate glucose supply to the cells and tissues that need it. When glucose homeostasis is impaired, the body is less able to maintain blood sugar levels within a healthy range, which can have negative effects on immune health. Many of the effects of impaired glucose homeostasis on immune health have been brought to light through research on type 2 diabetes (T2D): people with T2D are less able to fight off invading pathogens.[17] Hyperglycemia (abnormally high blood sugar) can also impair the immune response by affecting the immune system’s ability to induce[26] or resolve[27] inflammation. Glucose is a reactive molecule that causes chemical modifications to proteins if it is allowed to accumulate to toxic levels in the blood.[28] Animal studies have suggested that hyperglycemia may promote autoimmunity through the chemical modification of major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class II proteins in immune cells,[29] which play a role in sensing and responding to foreign pathogens. While further studies are needed to confirm these findings in humans, in the animal model, autoimmunity targeted a protein associated with cholesterol transport and atherosclerosis, suggesting a possible explanation for the connection between diabetes and atherosclerosis risk.[30]

    Examine Database References

    1. COPD Symptoms - van Overveld FJ, Demkow U, Górecka D, de Backer WA, Zielinski JNew developments in the treatment of COPD: comparing the effects of inhaled corticosteroids and N-acetylcysteineJ Physiol Pharmacol.(2005 Sep)
    2. Neutrophil Activity - van Overveld FJ, Vermeire PA, De Backer WAInduced sputum of patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) contains adhesion-promoting, therapy-sensitive factorsInflamm Res.(2000 Jan)
    3. White Blood Cell Count - Selmi C, Leung PS, Fischer L, German B, Yang CY, Kenny TP, Cysewski GR, Gershwin METhe effects of Spirulina on anemia and immune function in senior citizensCell Mol Immunol.(2011 May)
    4. Low-density lipoprotein (LDL) - Park HJ, Lee YJ, Ryu HK, Kim MH, Chung HW, Kim WYA randomized double-blind, placebo-controlled study to establish the effects of spirulina in elderly KoreansAnn Nutr Metab.(2008)
    5. Low-density lipoprotein (LDL) - Szulinska M, Gibas-Dorna M, Miller-Kasprzak E, Suliburska J, Miczke A, Walczak-Gałezewska M, Stelmach-Mardas M, Walkowiak J, Bogdanski PSpirulina maxima improves insulin sensitivity, lipid profile, and total antioxidant status in obese patients with well-treated hypertension: a randomized double-blind placebo-controlled studyEur Rev Med Pharmacol Sci.(2017 May)
    6. TNF-Alpha - Hee Jung Park, Hyun Sook LeeMonocyte chemoattractant protein-1 polymorphism interaction with spirulina immunomodulatory effects in healthy Korean elderly: A 16 week, double-blind randomized clinical trialNutr Res Pract.(2017 Aug)
    7. Natural Killer Cell Activity - Nielsen CH, Balachandran P, Christensen O, Pugh ND, Tamta H, Sufka KJ, Wu X, Walsted A, Schjørring-Thyssen M, Enevold C, Pasco DSEnhancement of natural killer cell activity in healthy subjects by Immulina®, a Spirulina extract enriched for Braun-type lipoproteinsPlanta Med.(2010 Nov)
    8. Natural Killer Cell Content - Artur Juszkiewicz, Piotr Basta, Elżbieta Petriczko, Bogusław Machaliński, Jerzy Trzeciak, Karolina Łuczkowska, Anna Skarpańska-StejnbornAn attempt to induce an immunomodulatory effect in rowers with spirulina extractJ Int Soc Sports Nutr.(2018 Feb 20)
    9. Interferon Gamma - T K Mao, J Van de Water, M E GershwinEffects of a Spirulina-based dietary supplement on cytokine production from allergic rhinitis patientsJ Med Food.(Spring 2005)
    10. White Blood Cell Count - Kianbakht S, Ghazavi AImmunomodulatory effects of saffron: a randomized double-blind placebo-controlled clinical trialPhytother Res.(2011 Dec)
    11. TNF-Alpha - Hajieh Shahbazian, Armaghan Moravej Aleali, Reza Amani, Foroogh Namjooyan, Bahman Cheraghian, Seyed Mahmoud Latifi, Sara Bahrainian, Ataallah GhadiriEffects of saffron on homocysteine, and antioxidant and inflammatory biomarkers levels in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus: a randomized double-blind clinical trialAvicenna J Phytomed.(Sep-Oct 2019)
    12. White Blood Cell Count - Perche O, Vergnaud-Gauduchon J, Morand C, Dubray C, Mazur A, Vasson MPOrange juice and its major polyphenol hesperidin consumption do not induce immunomodulation in healthy well-nourished humansClin Nutr.(2013 Mar 26)
    13. Interleukin 6 - Buzdağlı Y, Eyipınar CD, Kacı FN, Tekin AEffects of hesperidin on anti-inflammatory and antioxidant response in healthy people: a meta-analysis and meta-regression.Int J Environ Health Res.(2022-Jun-28)
    14. Interleukin 6 - Lorzadeh E, Ramezani-Jolfaie N, Mohammadi M, Khoshbakht Y, Salehi-Abargouei AThe effect of hesperidin supplementation on inflammatory markers in human adults: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled clinical trials.Chem Biol Interact.(2019-Jul-01)
    15. White Blood Cell Count - Ishikawa H, Saeki T, Otani T, Suzuki T, Shimozuma K, Nishino H, Fukuda S, Morimoto KAged garlic extract prevents a decline of NK cell number and activity in patients with advanced cancerJ Nutr.(2006 Mar)
    16. TNF-Alpha - Nantz MP, Rowe CA, Muller CE, Creasy RA, Stanilka JM, Percival SSSupplementation with aged garlic extract improves both NK and γδ-T cell function and reduces the severity of cold and flu symptoms: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled nutrition interventionClin Nutr.(2012 Jun)
    17. Nitric Oxide - Mau Bhattacharyya, G V Girish, Soumendra K Karmohapatra, S A Samad, Asru K SinhaSystemic production of IFN-alpha by garlic (Allium sativum) in humansJ Interferon Cytokine Res.(2007 May)
    18. White Blood Cell Count - Jensen GS, Patel D, Benson KFA novel extract from bovine colostrum whey supports innate immune functions. II. Rapid changes in cellular immune function in humansPrev Med.(2012 May)
    19. Lymphocyte Count - Carol A, Witkamp RF, Wichers HJ, Mensink MBovine colostrum supplementation's lack of effect on immune variables during short-term intense exercise in well-trained athletesInt J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab.(2011 Apr)
    20. Immunity - Wolvers DA, van Herpen-Broekmans WM, Logman MH, van der Wielen RP, Albers REffect of a mixture of micronutrients, but not of bovine colostrum concentrate, on immune function parameters in healthy volunteers: a randomized placebo-controlled studyNutr J.(2006 Nov 21)
    21. C-Reactive Protein (CRP) - Crooks C, Cross ML, Wall C, Ali AEffect of bovine colostrum supplementation on respiratory tract mucosal defenses in swimmersInt J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab.(2010 Jun)
    22. Upper Respiratory Tract Infection Symptoms - Crooks CV, Wall CR, Cross ML, Rutherfurd-Markwick KJThe effect of bovine colostrum supplementation on salivary IgA in distance runnersInt J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab.(2006 Feb)
    23. Immunoglobulin G - He F, Tuomola E, Arvilommi H, Salminen SModulation of human humoral immune response through orally administered bovine colostrumFEMS Immunol Med Microbiol.(2001 Aug)
    24. Immunoglobulin G - Mero A, Kähkönen J, Nykänen T, Parviainen T, Jokinen I, Takala T, Nikula T, Rasi S, Leppäluoto JIGF-I, IgA, and IgG responses to bovine colostrum supplementation during trainingJ Appl Physiol (1985).(2002 Aug)
    25. Diarrhea Symptoms - Tacket CO, Losonsky G, Livio S, Edelman R, Crabb J, Freedman DLack of prophylactic efficacy of an enteric-coated bovine hyperimmune milk product against enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli challenge administered during a standard mealJ Infect Dis.(1999 Dec)
    26. Cortisol - A Mero, H Miikkulainen, J Riski, R Pakkanen, J Aalto, T TakalaEffects of bovine colostrum supplementation on serum IGF-I, IgG, hormone, and saliva IgA during trainingJ Appl Physiol (1985).(1997 Oct)
    27. White Blood Cell Count - Gleeson M, Bishop NC, Oliveira M, Tauler PDaily probiotic's (Lactobacillus casei Shirota) reduction of infection incidence in athletesInt J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab.(2011 Feb)
    28. Triglycerides - Leber B, Tripolt NJ, Blattl D, Eder M, Wascher TC, Pieber TR, Stauber R, Sourij H, Oettl K, Stadlbauer VThe influence of probiotic supplementation on gut permeability in patients with metabolic syndrome: an open label, randomized pilot studyEur J Clin Nutr.(2012 Oct)
    29. White Blood Cell Count - Meydani SN, Barklund MP, Liu S, Meydani M, Miller RA, Cannon JG, Morrow FD, Rocklin R, Blumberg JBVitamin E supplementation enhances cell-mediated immunity in healthy elderly subjectsAm J Clin Nutr.(1990 Sep)
    30. White Blood Cell Count - Meydani SN, Meydani M, Blumberg JB, Leka LS, Siber G, Loszewski R, Thompson C, Pedrosa MC, Diamond RD, Stollar BDVitamin E supplementation and in vivo immune response in healthy elderly subjects. A randomized controlled trialJAMA.(1997 May 7)
    31. Immunity - Pallast EG, Schouten EG, de Waart FG, Fonk HC, Doekes G, von Blomberg BM, Kok FJEffect of 50- and 100-mg vitamin E supplements on cellular immune function in noninstitutionalized elderly personsAm J Clin Nutr.(1999 Jun)
    32. Immunoglobulin G - Mahalingam D, Radhakrishnan AK, Amom Z, Ibrahim N, Nesaretnam KEffects of supplementation with tocotrienol-rich fraction on immune response to tetanus toxoid immunization in normal healthy volunteersEur J Clin Nutr.(2011 Jan)
    33. Natural Killer Cell Content - Radhakrishnan AK, Lee AL, Wong PF, Kaur J, Aung H, Nesaretnam KDaily supplementation of tocotrienol-rich fraction or alpha-tocopherol did not induce immunomodulatory changes in healthy human volunteersBr J Nutr.(2009 Mar)
    34. White Blood Cell Count - Y Sheng, C Bryngelsson, R W PeroEnhanced DNA repair, immune function and reduced toxicity of C-MED-100, a novel aqueous extract from Uncaria tomentosaJ Ethnopharmacol.(2000 Feb)
    35. White Blood Cell Count - Reidar J Pettersen, Mohamed Salem, Jon Skorve, Rune J Ulvik, Rolf K Berge, Jan Erik NordrehaugPharmacology and safety of tetradecylthioacetic acid (TTA): phase-1 studyJ Cardiovasc Pharmacol.(2008 Apr)
    36. Low-density lipoprotein (LDL) - Fredriksen J, Ueland T, Dyrøy E, Halvorsen B, Melby K, Melbye L, Skalhegg BS, Bohov P, Skorve J, Berge RK, Aukrust P, Frøland SSLipid-lowering and anti-inflammatory effects of tetradecylthioacetic acid in HIV-infected patients on highly active antiretroviral therapyEur J Clin Invest.(2004 Oct)
    37. White Blood Cell Count - A Juszkiewicz, A Glapa, P Basta, E Petriczko, K Żołnowski, B Machaliński, J Trzeciak, K Łuczkowska, A Skarpańska-StejnbornThe effect of L-theanine supplementation on the immune system of athletes exposed to strenuous physical exerciseJ Int Soc Sports Nutr.(2019 Feb 15)
    38. Heart Rate - Kimura K, Ozeki M, Juneja LR, Ohira HL-Theanine reduces psychological and physiological stress responsesBiol Psychol.(2007 Jan)
    39. White Blood Cell Count - Spiller GA, Dewell ASafety of an astaxanthin-rich Haematococcus pluvialis algal extract: a randomized clinical trialJ Med Food.(2003 Spring)
    40. White Blood Cell Count - Chen JT, Kotani KEffects of Astaxanthin on Liver and Leukocyte Parameters in Healthy Climacteric Women: Preliminary DataJ Med Food.(2017 Jul)
    41. Low-density lipoprotein (LDL) - Baralic I, Andjelkovic M, Djordjevic B, Dikic N, Radivojevic N, Suzin-Zivkovic V, Radojevic-Skodric S, Pejic SEffect of Astaxanthin Supplementation on Salivary IgA, Oxidative Stress, and Inflammation in Young Soccer PlayersEvid Based Complement Alternat Med.(2015)
    42. TNF-Alpha - Park JS, Chyun JH, Kim YK, Line LL, Chew BPAstaxanthin decreased oxidative stress and inflammation and enhanced immune response in humansNutr Metab (Lond).(2010 Mar 5)
    43. Inflammation - Andersen LP, Holck S, Kupcinskas L, Kiudelis G, Jonaitis L, Janciauskas D, Permin H, Wadström TGastric inflammatory markers and interleukins in patients with functional dyspepsia treated with astaxanthinFEMS Immunol Med Microbiol.(2007 Jul)
    44. White Blood Cell Count - Robert D Abbott, Adam Sadowski, Angela G AltEfficacy of the Autoimmune Protocol Diet as Part of a Multi-disciplinary, Supported Lifestyle Intervention for Hashimoto's ThyroiditisCureus.(2019 Apr 27)
    45. Tuberculosis Symptoms - Ganmaa D, Giovannucci E, Bloom BR, Fawzi W, Burr W, Batbaatar D, Sumberzul N, Holick MF, Willett WCVitamin D, tuberculin skin test conversion, and latent tuberculosis in Mongolian school-age children: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled feasibility trialAm J Clin Nutr.(2012 Aug)
    46. Low-density lipoprotein (LDL) - Zittermann A, Frisch S, Berthold HK, Götting C, Kuhn J, Kleesiek K, Stehle P, Koertke H, Koerfer RVitamin D supplementation enhances the beneficial effects of weight loss on cardiovascular disease risk markersAm J Clin Nutr.(2009 May)
    47. Upper Respiratory Tract Infection Symptoms - Simpson S, Mei I, Stewart N, Blizzard L, Tettey P, Taylor BWeekly cholecalciferol supplementation results in significant reductions in infection risk among the vitamin D deficient: results from the CIPRIS pilot RCTBMC Nutr.()
    48. Upper Respiratory Tract Infection Risk - Hauger H, Ritz C, Mortensen C, Mølgaard C, Metzdorff SB, Frøkiær H, Damsgaard CTWinter cholecalciferol supplementation at 55°N has little effect on markers of innate immune defense in healthy children aged 4-8 years: a secondary analysis from a randomized controlled trialEur J Nutr.(2019 Jun)
    49. Interleukin 5 - Barker T, Martins TB, Hill HR, Kjeldsberg CR, Henriksen VT, Dixon BM, Schneider ED, Dern A, Weaver LKDifferent doses of supplemental vitamin D maintain interleukin-5 without altering skeletal muscle strength: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study in vitamin D sufficient adultsNutr Metab (Lond).(2012 Mar 9)
    50. Lymphocyte Count - Badar VA, Thawani VR, Wakode PT, Shrivastava MP, Gharpure KJ, Hingorani LL, Khiyani RMEfficacy of Tinospora cordifolia in allergic rhinitisJ Ethnopharmacol.(2005 Jan 15)
    51. Lymphocyte Count - Dangardt F, Osika W, Chen Y, Nilsson U, Gan LM, Gronowitz E, Strandvik B, Friberg POmega-3 fatty acid supplementation improves vascular function and reduces inflammation in obese adolescentsAtherosclerosis.(2010 Oct)
    52. Low-density lipoprotein (LDL) - Vega-López S, Kaul N, Devaraj S, Cai RY, German B, Jialal ISupplementation with omega3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and all-rac alpha-tocopherol alone and in combination failed to exert an anti-inflammatory effect in human volunteersMetabolism.(2004 Feb)
    53. Low-density lipoprotein (LDL) - Schirmer SH, Werner CM, Binder SB, Faas ME, Custodis F, Böhm M, Laufs UEffects of omega-3 fatty acids on postprandial triglycerides and monocyte activationAtherosclerosis.(2012 Nov)
    54. TNF-Alpha - Mina Abdolahi, Abbas Tafakhori, Mansoureh Togha, Ali Asghar Okhovat, Feridoun Siassi, Mohammad Reza Eshraghian, Mohsen Sedighiyan, Mona Djalali, Niyaz Mohammadzadeh Honarvar, Mahmoud DjalaliThe synergistic effects of ω-3 fatty acids and nano-curcumin supplementation on tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α gene expression and serum level in migraine patientsImmunogenetics.(2017 Jun)
    55. TNF-Alpha - Kelley DS, Taylor PC, Nelson GJ, Schmidt PC, Ferretti A, Erickson KL, Yu R, Chandra RK, Mackey BEDocosahexaenoic acid ingestion inhibits natural killer cell activity and production of inflammatory mediators in young healthy menLipids.(1999 Apr)
    56. Natural Killer Cell Activity - Miles EA, Banerjee T, Wells SJ, Calder PCLimited effect of eicosapentaenoic acid on T-lymphocyte and natural killer cell numbers and functions in healthy young malesNutrition.(2006 May)
    57. Natural Killer Cell Activity - Thies F, Nebe-von-Caron G, Powell JR, Yaqoob P, Newsholme EA, Calder PCDietary supplementation with eicosapentaenoic acid, but not with other long-chain n-3 or n-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids, decreases natural killer cell activity in healthy subjects aged &gt;55 yAm J Clin Nutr.(2001 Mar)
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    Immune Health: Symptoms, causes, treatments, and your questions answered.