Saffron

    Researchedby:
    Wyatt Brown, Katie Jantz

    Fact-checked

    by:

    Nick Milazzo
    Last Updated: March 17, 2024

    Saffron is a spice with antioxidant properties derived from the flowering plant Crocus sativus. When used as a supplement, saffron seems to be effective at reducing symptoms of depression and possibly anxiety.

    What is saffron?

    Saffron (Crocus sativus L.) is a flowering plant in the iris family used in various domains for its taste, aroma, pigment, and medicinal properties. Saffron, sometimes called “red gold”, is the most expensive spice in the world and is produced predominantly in Iran.[4] The most prized part of the saffron plant is the dried red stigmas, which contain over 150 bioactive compounds including carotenoids (crocin, crocetin), terpenes (picrocrocin, safranol), and many other phytochemicals.[5]

    What are the traditional uses of saffron?

    What are saffron’s main benefits?

    Saffron is a potent antioxidant and has shown consistent benefits for depression.[6]

    When used in people with minor to moderate depression, saffron appears to be superior to placebo and comparable to some commonly used antidepressants (e.g., fluoxetine, citalopram) for reducing symptoms of depression and achieving remission.[7][8][9] Saffron may also reduce symptoms of anxiety, but this effect is less clearly established.[7]

    While the evidence is promising, nearly all of the clinical trials have been conducted in Iran, sample sizes have been small (<100 people), and durations have been short (≤12 weeks). Larger and longer trials in more diverse populations are needed to further validate these effects and determine whether the benefits persist over time.

    Does saffron improve sleep?

    Does saffron affect attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder?

    Does saffron affect cardiometabolic health?

    Does saffron affect sexual dysfunction?

    Does saffron affect Alzheimer’s disease?

    Does saffron affect eye health?

    What are saffron’s main drawbacks?

    The most common side effects of saffron include nausea, changes in appetite, dry mouth, headache, anxiety, and drowsiness.[10] Changes in blood parameters have been reported in studies using doses of 60–400 mg daily, although it’s not clear if this has any clinical implications.[11][10] At excessively high doses (1,200–2,000 mg), saffron has been reported to cause vomiting, diarrhea, and bleeding.[1] Supplementing with isolated crocin (one of the active compounds in saffron) at normal doses may raise serum creatinine levels, which could indicate a risk of kidney damage.[2]

    There are concerns regarding the quality of saffron supplements. Some of the important compounds in saffron are sensitive to light, oxygen, and temperature. Further, the way saffron is grown, harvested, and processed can alter its chemical composition. Due to its high economic value, saffron has also historically been prone to adulteration.[12] These factors may lead to large variations in the types and amounts of active compounds found in a saffron supplement which could impact its effectiveness. Choosing a supplement that is third-party tested can help ensure its quality.

    Lastly, most of the research on saffron has been conducted in Iran, and its effects on other populations require further validation.

    How does saffron work?

    Saffron contains many active compounds, but crocin, crocetin, safranol, and picrocrocin are considered to be the most important.[13] Following consumption, some of these compounds are transformed within the gastrointestinal tract, and the main compound found in the blood seems to be crocetin (although more research is needed in this department).[5]

    Preclinical research suggests that saffron can influence the brain in a variety of ways, which likely explains its effects on mood and cognition. Saffron may prevent the reuptake of certain neurotransmitters — like dopamine, serotonin, and norepinephrine — which allows their effects to persist for longer.[8] Saffron may also interact with the HPA axis, leading to reduced levels of cortisol, and might influence neuroplasticity by increasing brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF).[9]

    As an antioxidant, saffron may increase the expression of nuclear factor erythroid 2–related factor 2 (Nrf2), leading to increased levels of antioxidant enzymes and an overall improved antioxidant capacity.[14][6] In animal studies, saffron has reduced oxidative stress in brain tissue.[15]

    What are other names for Saffron

    Note that Saffron is also known as:
    • Crocus sativus L.
    • Crocin (a bioactive compound in saffron)
    Saffron should not be confused with:

    Dosage information

    Saffron is usually taken at a dosage of 15 mg twice daily, for a total of 30 mg daily. While higher doses have been used, there is no clear benefit to this, and there may be an increased risk of side effects. Doses above 5 grams (5,000 mg) are considered toxic and doses above 20 grams (20,000 mg) may be lethal.[1]

    Saffron supplements usually contain saffron stigma extract, which is the most studied form. However, whole dehydrated stigma or petals are sometimes used, and preliminary research suggests they may also be effective.

    Crocin, one of the major active compounds in saffron, can be taken in isolation at a similar dose as saffron. While some research in the realms of depression and metabolic health has demonstrated similar effects,[2][3] there’s currently not enough evidence to support taking crocin instead of regular saffron supplements. Additionally, some research suggests that crocin may increase serum creatinine levels, which could indicate a safety risk for the kidneys.[2]

    Frequently asked questions

    What is saffron?

    Saffron (Crocus sativus L.) is a flowering plant in the iris family used in various domains for its taste, aroma, pigment, and medicinal properties. Saffron, sometimes called “red gold”, is the most expensive spice in the world and is produced predominantly in Iran.[4] The most prized part of the saffron plant is the dried red stigmas, which contain over 150 bioactive compounds including carotenoids (crocin, crocetin), terpenes (picrocrocin, safranol), and many other phytochemicals.[5]

    What are the traditional uses of saffron?

    The cultivation of saffron as a medicinal plant goes back to ancient times, with estimates dating back to the 12th century BC. Traditionally, the red stigmas were handpicked from the saffron flowers at dawn and allowed to dry in the shade to help preserve their aroma and therapeutic properties. The plant was used by many cultures, including Egyptian, Roman, and Greek civilizations, and continues to be an important medicine in traditional Persian, Chinese, and Ayurvedic medical systems.[33]

    The traditional medicinal uses of saffron are far-reaching, with over 90 documented uses among different cultures. Some of these uses include pain relief and sedation; treating ailments of the gastrointestinal tract, lungs, eyes, nervous system, liver, circulatory system, and skin; as an aphrodisiac; and as a general tonic for strength and vitality.[33][12]

    Saffron also has a long history of use for culinary and cosmetic purposes. Its pigments are extracted for adding color to foods and textiles, as well as for applying topically to brighten the skin. As a culinary spice, saffron provides a sweet, floral, and slightly bitter flavor that is used in many traditional dishes in Persian and Indian cuisine.[33]

    What are saffron’s main benefits?

    Saffron is a potent antioxidant and has shown consistent benefits for depression.[6]

    When used in people with minor to moderate depression, saffron appears to be superior to placebo and comparable to some commonly used antidepressants (e.g., fluoxetine, citalopram) for reducing symptoms of depression and achieving remission.[7][8][9] Saffron may also reduce symptoms of anxiety, but this effect is less clearly established.[7]

    While the evidence is promising, nearly all of the clinical trials have been conducted in Iran, sample sizes have been small (<100 people), and durations have been short (≤12 weeks). Larger and longer trials in more diverse populations are needed to further validate these effects and determine whether the benefits persist over time.

    Does saffron improve sleep?

    Early research suggests that saffron may benefit sleep in various populations (including those with insomnia). Still, more research is needed to feel confident about this effect and to determine optimal dosing.

    Saffron may enhance several aspects of sleep as measured by various tools, most notably the Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI). The most consistent benefits seem to be for sleep quality and sleep duration.[16][4][17] This effect appears to be the strongest in people with type 2 diabetes, but further research is needed to confirm whether this is a true effect rather than an artifact of limited research.[16]

    Saffron’s effect on sleep is supported by animal research, which found that crocin and crocetin, major active compounds in saffron, significantly increased non-rapid-eye-movement (NREM) sleep in mice.[18] Additionally, safranal, another active compound in saffron, was found to dose-dependently increase sleep duration in mice.[19] However, the doses and route of administration used in these studies were not representative of human use.

    Does saffron affect attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder?

    Few trials have assessed the effects of saffron on symptoms of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), but preliminary research is promising.

    Currently, existing trials have either compared saffron alone to methylphenidate, a common stimulant medication used in ADHD, or compared saffron plus methylphenidate to methylphenidate alone. In two trials, saffron was comparable to methylphenidate for reducing ADHD symptoms and improving executive function in children and adolescents.[20][21] In another two studies, adding saffron to methylphenidate seemed to more effectively reduce ADHD symptoms than methylphenidate alone in both children and adults.[22][23]

    Saffron may inhibit the reuptake of dopamine and norepinephrine (a similar mechanism to many ADHD medications), which could explain these results.[13]

    Does saffron affect cardiometabolic health?

    Saffron may have a beneficial effect on various aspects of cardiovascular health and metabolic health. Still, the research is mixed, and studies have included a wide range of patient populations, doses, and formulations (e.g., saffron extract, whole saffron powder, isolated crocin), which makes it difficult to draw any clear conclusions.

    Some evidence suggests that saffron can affect lipid profiles, including reductions in triglycerides, total cholesterol, and low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol. However, this effect may not be observed when it matters most: in people with elevated lipid levels or type 2 diabetes.[24][2]

    Saffron may improve glycemic control, with some research finding reductions in both hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c) and fasting glucose, including in people with type 2 diabetes.[24][2]

    Saffron might reduce blood pressure, but most research that finds a reduction in systolic blood pressure has found no change in diastolic blood pressure.[24][2]

    Does saffron affect sexual dysfunction?

    Saffron has been used traditionally as an aphrodisiac, and preliminary clinical research seems to support this use; however, replication of existing trials is needed.

    Self-reported improvements in sexual function have been observed in a variety of contexts. For men with erectile dysfunction, antidepressant-induced sexual dysfunction, or hypoactive sexual desire disorder, saffron may increase erections and overall satisfaction with intercourse.[25][26][27] In women with antidepressant-induced sexual dysfunction, saffron was reported to increase vaginal lubrication and arousal and to reduce pain with intercourse.[26]

    Does saffron affect Alzheimer’s disease?

    Saffron may have neuroprotective effects that could benefit a variety of neurodegenerative diseases, such as Alzheimer’s disease, but research is too preliminary to draw any meaningful conclusions.

    Saffron might improve cognition in people with Alzheimer’s disease, with limited research suggesting that saffron is more effective than placebo and provides similar benefits to those seen with commonly used medications like donepezil and memantine.[28][29][30] However, it’s important to note that the benefits observed for both saffron and conventional medicine were limited, either providing marginal improvements in cognitive function or simply delaying further cognitive decline.

    In vitro research suggests that saffron could theoretically improve the function and survival of neurons in the brain by inhibiting the breakdown of acetylcholine, reducing glutamine signaling, and preventing the formation of amyloid-beta fibrils (part of the pathogenesis of Alzheimer’s disease). Animal research has also found that saffron can reduce oxidative stress markers in the brain. Regardless, none of these effects have been observed in humans, and further research is needed to determine whether saffron has a role in Alzheimer’s disease.[15][31]

    Does saffron affect eye health?

    Preliminary research has found that saffron may benefit eye health, likely thanks to its content of antioxidant carotenoids — primarily crocin and crocetin. However, more research is needed to confirm these findings.

    In people with age-related or diabetic macular degeneration, saffron supplementation may improve retinal function, leading to improved visual acuity (the ability to identify increasingly smaller letters from a distance). When used in addition to standard therapy in people with glaucoma, saffron was found to further reduce pressure within the eye.[32]

    What are saffron’s main drawbacks?

    The most common side effects of saffron include nausea, changes in appetite, dry mouth, headache, anxiety, and drowsiness.[10] Changes in blood parameters have been reported in studies using doses of 60–400 mg daily, although it’s not clear if this has any clinical implications.[11][10] At excessively high doses (1,200–2,000 mg), saffron has been reported to cause vomiting, diarrhea, and bleeding.[1] Supplementing with isolated crocin (one of the active compounds in saffron) at normal doses may raise serum creatinine levels, which could indicate a risk of kidney damage.[2]

    There are concerns regarding the quality of saffron supplements. Some of the important compounds in saffron are sensitive to light, oxygen, and temperature. Further, the way saffron is grown, harvested, and processed can alter its chemical composition. Due to its high economic value, saffron has also historically been prone to adulteration.[12] These factors may lead to large variations in the types and amounts of active compounds found in a saffron supplement which could impact its effectiveness. Choosing a supplement that is third-party tested can help ensure its quality.

    Lastly, most of the research on saffron has been conducted in Iran, and its effects on other populations require further validation.

    How does saffron work?

    Saffron contains many active compounds, but crocin, crocetin, safranol, and picrocrocin are considered to be the most important.[13] Following consumption, some of these compounds are transformed within the gastrointestinal tract, and the main compound found in the blood seems to be crocetin (although more research is needed in this department).[5]

    Preclinical research suggests that saffron can influence the brain in a variety of ways, which likely explains its effects on mood and cognition. Saffron may prevent the reuptake of certain neurotransmitters — like dopamine, serotonin, and norepinephrine — which allows their effects to persist for longer.[8] Saffron may also interact with the HPA axis, leading to reduced levels of cortisol, and might influence neuroplasticity by increasing brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF).[9]

    As an antioxidant, saffron may increase the expression of nuclear factor erythroid 2–related factor 2 (Nrf2), leading to increased levels of antioxidant enzymes and an overall improved antioxidant capacity.[14][6] In animal studies, saffron has reduced oxidative stress in brain tissue.[15]

    Update History

    References

    1. ^Schmidt M, Betti G, Hensel ASaffron in phytotherapy: pharmacology and clinical uses.Wien Med Wochenschr.(2007)
    2. ^Amatto PPG, Chaves L, Braga GG, Carmona F, Pereira AMSEffect of Crocus sativus L. (saffron) and crocin in the treatment of patients with type-2 diabetes mellitus: A systematic review and meta-analysis.J Ethnopharmacol.(2023-Sep-29)
    3. ^Wang H, Jin M, Xie M, Yang Y, Xue F, Li W, Zhang M, Li Z, Li X, Jia N, Liu Y, Cui X, Hu G, Dong L, Wang G, Yu QProtective role of antioxidant supplementation for depression and anxiety: A meta-analysis of randomized clinical trials.J Affect Disord.(2023-Feb-15)
    4. ^Sadat Rafiei SK, Abolghasemi S, Frashidi M, Ebrahimi S, Gharei F, Razmkhah Z, Tavousi N, Mahmoudvand B, Faani M, Karimi N, Abdi A, Soleimanzadeh M, Ahmadpour Youshanlui M, Sadatmadani SF, Alikhani R, Pishkari Y, Deravi NSaffron and Sleep Quality: A Systematic Review of Randomized Controlled Trials.Nutr Metab Insights.(2023)
    5. ^Cerdá-Bernad D, Costa L, Serra AT, Bronze MR, Valero-Cases E, Pérez-Llamas F, Candela ME, Arnao MB, Barberán FT, Villalba RG, García-Conesa MT, Frutos MJSaffron against Neuro-Cognitive Disorders: An Overview of Its Main Bioactive Compounds, Their Metabolic Fate and Potential Mechanisms of Neurological Protection.Nutrients.(2022 Dec 17)
    6. ^Abedi A, Ghobadi H, Sharghi A, Iranpour S, Fazlzadeh M, Aslani MREffect of saffron supplementation on oxidative stress markers (MDA, TAC, TOS, GPx, SOD, and pro-oxidant/antioxidant balance): An updated systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized placebo-controlled trials.Front Med (Lausanne).(2023)
    7. ^Wolfgang Marx, Melissa Lane, Tetyana Rocks, Anu Ruusunen, Amy Loughman, Adrian Lopresti, Skye Marshall, Michael Berk, Felice Jacka, Olivia M DeanEffect of saffron supplementation on symptoms of depression and anxiety: a systematic review and meta-analysisNutr Rev.(2019 May 28)
    8. ^Lili Dai, Lingyan Chen, Wenjing WangSafety and Efficacy of Saffron (Crocus sativus L.) for Treating Mild to Moderate Depression: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysisJ Nerv Ment Dis.(2020 Apr)
    9. ^Musazadeh V, Zarezadeh M, Faghfouri AH, Keramati M, Ghoreishi Z, Farnam ASaffron, as an adjunct therapy, contributes to relieve depression symptoms: An umbrella meta-analysis.Pharmacol Res.(2022-Jan)
    10. ^Bostan HB, Mehri S, Hosseinzadeh HToxicology effects of saffron and its constituents: a review.Iran J Basic Med Sci.(2017-Feb)
    11. ^Safarinejad MR, Shafiei N, Safarinejad SA prospective double-blind randomized placebo-controlled study of the effect of saffron (Crocus sativus Linn.) on semen parameters and seminal plasma antioxidant capacity in infertile men with idiopathic oligoasthenoteratozoospermiaPhytother Res.(2011 Apr)
    12. ^Aissa R, Ibourki M, Ait Bouzid H, Bijla L, Oubannin S, Sakar EH, Jadouali S, Hermansyah A, Goh KW, Ming LC, Bouyahya A, Gharby SPhytochemistry, quality control and medicinal uses of Saffron (.): an updated review.J Med Life.(2023-Jun)
    13. ^Seyedi-Sahebari S, Farhang S, Araj-Khodaei M, Akhondzadeh S, Naseri A, Sanaie S, Frounchi NThe Effects of (Saffron) on ADHD: A Systematic Review.J Atten Disord.(2024-Jan)
    14. ^Moini Jazani A, Karimi A, Nasimi Doost Azgomi RThe potential role of saffron (Crocus Sativus L.) and its components in oxidative stress in diabetes mellitus: A systematic review.Clin Nutr ESPEN.(2022-Apr)
    15. ^Hamedani SG, Pourmasoumi M, Zarifi SH, Askari G, Jamialahmadi T, Bagherniya M, Sahebkar ATherapeutic effects of saffron and its components on neurodegenerative diseases.Heliyon.(2024-Jan-30)
    16. ^Jinrong Lian, Yi Zhong, Hang Li, Siyuan Yang, Jiahe Wang, Xiang Li, Xinmin Zhou, Gang ChenEffects of saffron supplementation on improving sleep quality: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trialsSleep Med.(2022 Apr)
    17. ^Munirah MP, Norhayati MN, Noraini MCrocus Sativus for Insomnia: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.Int J Environ Res Public Health.(2022-Sep-16)
    18. ^Masaki M, Aritake K, Tanaka H, Shoyama Y, Huang ZL, Urade YCrocin promotes non-rapid eye movement sleep in mice.Mol Nutr Food Res.(2012-Feb)
    19. ^Hosseinzadeh H, Noraei NBAnxiolytic and hypnotic effect of Crocus sativus aqueous extract and its constituents, crocin and safranal, in mice.Phytother Res.(2009-Jun)
    20. ^Blasco-Fontecilla H, Moyano-Ramírez E, Méndez-González O, Rodrigo-Yanguas M, Martin-Moratinos M, Bella-Fernández MEffectivity of Saffron Extract (Saffr'Activ) on Treatment for Children and Adolescents with Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD): A Clinical Effectivity Study.Nutrients.(2022-Sep-28)
    21. ^Sara Baziar, Ali Aqamolaei, Ebrahim Khadem, Seyyed Hosein Mortazavi, Sina Naderi, Erfan Sahebolzamani, Amirhosein Mortezaei, Shakiba Jalilevand, Mohammad-Reza Mohammadi, Mahsa Shahmirzadi, Shahin AkhondzadehCrocus sativus L. Versus Methylphenidate in Treatment of Children with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: A Randomized, Double-Blind Pilot StudyJ Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol.(2019 Apr)
    22. ^Khaksarian M, Ahangari N, Masjedi-Arani A Mirr I , Jafari H , Kordian S, Nooripour R, Hassanvandi SA comparison of methylphenidate (MPH) and combined methylphenidate with Crocus sativus (saffron) in the treatment of children and adolescents with ADHD: A randomized, double-blind, parallel-group, clinical trialIran J Psychiatry Behav Sci.(2021 May)
    23. ^Pazoki B, Zandi N, Assaf Z, Moghaddam H, Zeinoddini A, Mohammadi M, Akhondzadeh SEfficacy and safety of saffron as adjunctive therapy in adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trialAdv Integr Med.(2022 Mar)
    24. ^Mohammad Zamani, Mahtab Zarei, Mahlagha Nikbaf-Shandiz, Fatemeh Gholami, Amir Mehdi Hosseini, Maryam Nadery, Farideh Shiraseb, Omid AsbaghiThe effects of saffron supplementation on cardiovascular risk factors in adults: A systematic review and dose-response meta-analysisFront Nutr.(2022 Dec 8)
    25. ^Maleki-Saghooni N, Mirzaeii K, Hosseinzadeh H, Sadeghi R, Irani MA systematic review and meta-analysis of clinical trials on saffron (Crocus sativus) effectiveness and safety on erectile dysfunction and semen parameters.Avicenna J Phytomed.(2018 May-Jun)
    26. ^Ranjbar H, Ashrafizaveh AEffects of saffron (Crocus sativus) on sexual dysfunction among men and women: A systematic review and meta-analysis.Avicenna J Phytomed.(2019 Sep-Oct)
    27. ^Concerto C, Rodolico A, Meo V, Chiappetta D, Bonelli M, Mineo L, Saitta G, Stuto S, Signorelli MS, Petralia A, Lanza G, Aguglia EA Systematic Review on the Effect of Nutraceuticals on Antidepressant-Induced Sexual Dysfunctions: From Basic Principles to Clinical Applications.Curr Issues Mol Biol.(2022-Jul-25)
    28. ^Akhondzadeh S, Sabet MS, Harirchian MH, Togha M, Cheraghmakani H, Razeghi S, Hejazi SSh, Yousefi MH, Alimardani R, Jamshidi A, Zare F, Moradi ASaffron in the treatment of patients with mild to moderate Alzheimer's disease: a 16-week, randomized and placebo-controlled trialJ Clin Pharm Ther.(2010 Oct)
    29. ^Akhondzadeh S, Shafiee Sabet M, Harirchian MH, Togha M, Cheraghmakani H, Razeghi S, Hejazi SS, Yousefi MH, Alimardani R, Jamshidi A, Rezazadeh SA, Yousefi A, Zare F, Moradi A, Vossoughi AA 22-week, multicenter, randomized, double-blind controlled trial of Crocus sativus in the treatment of mild-to-moderate Alzheimer's diseasePsychopharmacology (Berl).(2010 Jan)
    30. ^Mehdi Farokhnia, Mehdi Shafiee Sabet, Negar Iranpour, Amirhossein Gougol, Habibeh Yekehtaz, Roozbeh Alimardani, Farzaneh Farsad, Maryam Kamalipour, Shahin AkhondzadehComparing the efficacy and safety of Crocus sativus L. with memantine in patients with moderate to severe Alzheimer's disease: a double-blind randomized clinical trialHum Psychopharmacol.(2014 Jul)
    31. ^Avgerinos KI, Vrysis C, Chaitidis N, Kolotsiou K, Myserlis PG, Kapogiannis DEffects of saffron (Crocus sativus L.) on cognitive function. A systematic review of RCTs.Neurol Sci.(2020-Oct)
    32. ^Sepahi S, Ghorani-Azam A, Hossieni SM, Mohajeri SA, Khodaverdi EPharmacological Effects of Saffron and its Constituents in Ocular Disorders from in vitro Studies to Clinical Trials: A Systematic Review.Curr Neuropharmacol.(2021)
    33. ^Butnariu M, Quispe C, Herrera-Bravo J, Sharifi-Rad J, Singh L, Aborehab NM, Bouyahya A, Venditti A, Sen S, Acharya K, Bashiry M, Ezzat SM, Setzer WN, Martorell M, Mileski KS, Bagiu IC, Docea AO, Calina D, Cho WCThe Pharmacological Activities of L.: A Review Based on the Mechanisms and Therapeutic Opportunities of its Phytoconstituents.Oxid Med Cell Longev.(2022)
    34. ^Jessie SW, Krishnakantha TPInhibition of human platelet aggregation and membrane lipid peroxidation by food spice, saffron.Mol Cell Biochem.(2005 Oct)
    35. ^Yang L, Qian Z, Yang Y, Sheng L, Ji H, Zhou C, Kazi HAInvolvement of Ca2+ in the inhibition by crocetin of platelet activity and thrombosis formation.J Agric Food Chem.(2008 Oct 22)
    36. ^Heidari Z, Daei M, Khalili H, Sahebkar ABleeding Complication in a Patient with Concomitant Use of Rivaroxaban and Saffron Supplement: a Case Report.Cardiovasc Hematol Disord Drug Targets.(2022 Apr 18)
    37. ^Hossein Ayatollahi, Atefeh Ordoei Javan, Mohammad Khajedaluee, Masood Shahroodian, Hossein HosseinzadehEffect of Crocus sativus L. (saffron) on coagulation and anticoagulation systems in healthy volunteersPhytother Res.(2014 Apr)
    38. ^Akhondzadeh S, Fallah-Pour H, Afkham K, Jamshidi AH, Khalighi-Cigaroudi FComparison of Crocus sativus L. and imipramine in the treatment of mild to moderate depression: a pilot double-blind randomized trial ISRCTN45683816BMC Complement Altern Med.(2004 Sep 2)
    39. ^Popescu FDCross-reactivity between aeroallergens and food allergens.World J Methodol.(2015 Jun 26)
    40. ^Begas E, Bounitsi M, Kilindris T, Kouvaras E, Makaritsis K, Kouretas D, Asprodini EKEffects of short-term saffron (Crocus sativus L.) intake on the in vivo activities of xenobiotic metabolizing enzymes in healthy volunteers.Food Chem Toxicol.(2019 Aug)
    41. ^Zhang Y, Shoyama Y, Sugiura M, Saito HEffects of Crocus sativus L. on the ethanol-induced impairment of passive avoidance performances in mice.Biol Pharm Bull.(1994 Feb)
    42. ^Hosseini A, Razavi BM, Hosseinzadeh HPharmacokinetic Properties of Saffron and its Active Components.Eur J Drug Metab Pharmacokinet.(2018 Aug)
    43. ^Tsimidou, M. et alKinetic Studies of Saffron (Crocus sativus L.) Quality DeteriorationJ Agric Food Chem.(August 1997)
    44. ^Upton, R. et al.Botanical Safety Handbook, Second Edition. US: CRC Press(2013)
    45. ^Ajam, M. et alIncreased Miscarriage Rate in Female Farmers Working in Saffron Fields: A Possible Effect of Saffron ToxicityAsia Pac. J. Med. Toxicol.(Jun 2014)
    46. ^Jamshid Tabeshpour, Farzaneh Sobhani, Seyed Alireza Sadjadi, Hossein Hosseinzadeh, Seyed Ahmad Mohajeri, Omid Rajabi, Zhila Taherzadeh, Saeid EslamiA double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled trial of saffron stigma (Crocus sativus L.) in mothers suffering from mild-to-moderate postpartum depressionPhytomedicine.(2017 Dec 1)
    47. ^Modaghegh MH, Shahabian M, Esmaeili HA, Rajbai O, Hosseinzadeh HSafety evaluation of saffron (Crocus sativus) tablets in healthy volunteersPhytomedicine.(2008 Dec)
    48. ^Kianbakht S, Ghazavi AImmunomodulatory effects of saffron: a randomized double-blind placebo-controlled clinical trialPhytother Res.(2011 Dec)