Vitamin E

    Researchedby:
    Daryl Nault

    Fact-checked

    by:

    Nick Milazzo
    Last Updated: September 26, 2023

    Vitamin E is a group of eight different compounds which, collectively, help support antioxidation in the body. Benefits of high doses have uncertain safety, and lower doses seem effective in boosting immunity in the elderly.

    Vitamin E is most often used for Immunity & Infectious Disease. The Examine Database covers General Cardiovascular Health, Type 2 Diabetes, and 36 other conditions and goals.

    301,057 participants in 56 trials and 3 meta-analyses

    Summary

    Vitamin E is a term used to refer to eight molecules, which are divided into two categories: tocopherols and tocotrienols. Each category is further divided up into alpha (α), beta (β), gamma (γ), and delta (δ) vitamers. The vitamer α-tocopherol is considered to be the ‘main’ vitamer, but the gammas (γ-tocopherol and γ-tocotrienol) are also popular research topics, due to their presence in the diet. Collectively, these compounds are called vitamin E. Vitamin E supplements almost always contain α-tocopherol.

    The majority of vitamin E’s benefits come from avoiding a deficiency, but there are several instances where supplementation can offer additional benefits. Supplementing α-tocopherol is able to improve T-cell mediated immune function, which boosts the immune system.

    Vitamin E also seems to be able to enhance the body’s antibody response to vaccinations. Vitamin E is particularly important for the elderly, since a deficiency is associated with a higher risk of bone fractures. Supplementing additional vitamin E, however, will not provide additional benefits to bone health. Vitamin E may also be able to protect against age-related cognitive decline, but further research is needed before supplementation can be recommended specifically for Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s treatment.

    Vitamin E was one of the first two antioxidant compounds to be sold as dietary supplements, the second being vitamin C. It is sometimes used as the ‘reference’ antioxidant compound when fat soluble compounds are being researched. Vitamin E may function as a signaling molecule within cells and for phosphate groups.

    Since the majority of vitamin E’s benefits are associated with low doses slightly above the Recommended Daily Allowance (RDA), vitamin E supplementation is not always necessary. Dietary changes can singlehandedly prevent a vitamin E deficiency and eliminate the need for supplementation. Sesame seeds in particular contain a lot of tocotrienols, as well as sesamin, which improves the retention of vitamin E. Low-dose vitamin E is safe to supplement, but it should not be mixed with coumarin-based anticoagulants like warfarin. High-dose long-term vitamin E supplementation (above 400IU per day), however, may be associated with increased risk of death and increased risk of prostate cancer.

    What are other names for Vitamin E

    Note that Vitamin E is also known as:
    • Tocopherols
    • Tocotrienols

    Dosage information

    Maintaining adequate levels of vitamin E in the body can be achieved through very low daily doses of 15mg (22.4 IU) or less. This dose of vitamin E can be acquired through the diet, making supplementation unnecessary in many cases. An elderly person supplementing vitamin E to improve immunity should take a 50-200mg dose.

    Vitamin E supplements should contain α-tocopherol. Avocados, olives, vegetable oils and almonds are all high in vitamin E.

    Vitamin E's antioxidant properties are improved when taken with unsaturated dietary fat. The minimum intake of vitamin E is 1 IU per gram of unsaturated fat. The ideal range is between 2-4 IU per gram of unsaturated fat.

    In regards to an upper limit, while doses above 400IU α-tocopherol (268mg) are well tolerated in the short term it is the smallest dose associated with potential long-term adverse effects. If taking vitamin E as a daily supplement for no specific purpose (ie. as part of a multivitamin) then 150mg could be seen as a prudent upper limit.

    Examine Database: Vitamin E

    General Cardiovascular Health
    Type 2 Diabetes
    Metabolic Health
    Immune Health
    Nonalcoholic Steatohepatitis
    General Cancer Care And Prevention
    Alzheimer’s Disease
    Primary Dysmenorrhea
    Premenstrual Syndrome
    Prostate Cancer
    Stroke
    Aerobic Exercise Performance
    Breast Pain
    Cardiovascular Disease
    General Liver Health
    Skin Health
    Asthma
    Chronic Kidney Disease
    Common Cold
    Coronary Artery Disease
    Hair Loss
    High Cholesterol
    Nonalcoholic Fatty Liver Disease
    Rheumatoid Arthritis
    Type 1 Diabetes
    Cataracts
    Cognitive Improvement
    Cycling Performance
    Cystic Fibrosis
    General Gut Health
    Hormone Health
    Longer Lifespan
    Mild Cognitive Impairment
    Mood Improvement
    Muscle Recovery
    Sexual Health
    Ulcerative Colitis
    Venous Thromboembolism

    Research FeedRead all studies

    Update History

    Research Breakdown

    Examine Database References

    1. CD8 Lymphocytes - Radhakrishnan AK, Lee AL, Wong PF, Kaur J, Aung H, Nesaretnam KDaily supplementation of tocotrienol-rich fraction or alpha-tocopherol did not induce immunomodulatory changes in healthy human volunteersBr J Nutr.(2009 Mar)
    2. Interferon Gamma - Mahalingam D, Radhakrishnan AK, Amom Z, Ibrahim N, Nesaretnam KEffects of supplementation with tocotrienol-rich fraction on immune response to tetanus toxoid immunization in normal healthy volunteersEur J Clin Nutr.(2011 Jan)
    3. Interferon Gamma - Pallast EG, Schouten EG, de Waart FG, Fonk HC, Doekes G, von Blomberg BM, Kok FJEffect of 50- and 100-mg vitamin E supplements on cellular immune function in noninstitutionalized elderly personsAm J Clin Nutr.(1999 Jun)
    4. Immunoglobulin G - Meydani SN, Barklund MP, Liu S, Meydani M, Miller RA, Cannon JG, Morrow FD, Rocklin R, Blumberg JBVitamin E supplementation enhances cell-mediated immunity in healthy elderly subjectsAm J Clin Nutr.(1990 Sep)
    5. White Blood Cell Count - Meydani SN, Meydani M, Blumberg JB, Leka LS, Siber G, Loszewski R, Thompson C, Pedrosa MC, Diamond RD, Stollar BDVitamin E supplementation and in vivo immune response in healthy elderly subjects. A randomized controlled trialJAMA.(1997 May 7)
    6. C-Reactive Protein (CRP) - Singh I, Turner AH, Sinclair AJ, Li D, Hawley JAEffects of gamma-tocopherol supplementation on thrombotic risk factorsAsia Pac J Clin Nutr.(2007)
    7. Cardiovascular Disease Mortality - Buring JEAspirin prevents stroke but not MI in women; vitamin E has no effect on CV disease or cancerCleve Clin J Med.(2006 Sep)
    8. C-Reactive Protein (CRP) - Economides PA, Khaodhiar L, Caselli A, Caballero AE, Keenan H, Bursell SE, King GL, Johnstone MT, Horton ES, Veves AThe effect of vitamin E on endothelial function of micro- and macrocirculation and left ventricular function in type 1 and type 2 diabetic patientsDiabetes.(2005 Jan)
    9. Oxidative Stress Biomarkers - Roberts LJ 2nd, Oates JA, Linton MF, Fazio S, Meador BP, Gross MD, Shyr Y, Morrow JDThe relationship between dose of vitamin E and suppression of oxidative stress in humansFree Radic Biol Med.(2007 Nov 15)
    10. Oxidative Stress Biomarkers - Meagher EA, Barry OP, Lawson JA, Rokach J, FitzGerald GAEffects of vitamin E on lipid peroxidation in healthy personsJAMA.(2001 Mar 7)
    11. Oxidative Stress Biomarkers - Rasool AH, Yuen KH, Yusoff K, Wong AR, Rahman ARDose dependent elevation of plasma tocotrienol levels and its effect on arterial compliance, plasma total antioxidant status, and lipid profile in healthy humans supplemented with tocotrienol rich vitamin EJ Nutr Sci Vitaminol (Tokyo).(2006 Dec)
    12. High-density lipoprotein (HDL) - Meydani SN, Meydani M, Blumberg JB, Leka LS, Pedrosa M, Diamond R, Schaefer EJAssessment of the safety of supplementation with different amounts of vitamin E in healthy older adultsAm J Clin Nutr.(1998 Aug)
    13. Neutrophil Count - Meydani SN, Meydani M, Rall LC, Morrow F, Blumberg JBAssessment of the safety of high-dose, short-term supplementation with vitamin E in healthy older adultsAm J Clin Nutr.(1994 Nov)
    14. Blood Flow - Gazis A, White DJ, Page SR, Cockcroft JREffect of oral vitamin E (alpha-tocopherol) supplementation on vascular endothelial function in Type 2 diabetes mellitusDiabet Med.(1999 Apr)
    15. All-Cause Mortality - Lee IM, Cook NR, Gaziano JM, Gordon D, Ridker PM, Manson JE, Hennekens CH, Buring JEVitamin E in the primary prevention of cardiovascular disease and cancer: the Women's Health Study: a randomized controlled trialJAMA.(2005 Jul 6)
    16. Prostate Cancer Risk - Lippman SM, Klein EA, Goodman PJ, Lucia MS, Thompson IM, Ford LG, Parnes HL, Minasian LM, Gaziano JM, Hartline JA, Parsons JK, Bearden JD 3rd, Crawford ED, Goodman GE, Claudio J, Winquist E, Cook ED, Karp DD, Walther P, Lieber MM, Kristal AR, Darke AK, Arnold KB, Ganz PA, Santella RM, Albanes D, Taylor PR, Probstfield JL, Jagpal TJ, Crowley JJ, Meyskens FL Jr, Baker LH, Coltman CA JrEffect of selenium and vitamin E on risk of prostate cancer and other cancers: the Selenium and Vitamin E Cancer Prevention Trial (SELECT)JAMA.(2009 Jan 7)
    17. Prostate Cancer Risk - Heinonen OP, Albanes D, Virtamo J, Taylor PR, Huttunen JK, Hartman AM, Haapakoski J, Malila N, Rautalahti M, Ripatti S, Mäenpää H, Teerenhovi L, Koss L, Virolainen M, Edwards BKProstate cancer and supplementation with alpha-tocopherol and beta-carotene: incidence and mortality in a controlled trialJ Natl Cancer Inst.(1998 Mar 18)
    18. Prostate Cancer Risk - Klein EA, Thompson IM Jr, Tangen CM, Crowley JJ, Lucia MS, Goodman PJ, Minasian LM, Ford LG, Parnes HL, Gaziano JM, Karp DD, Lieber MM, Walther PJ, Klotz L, Parsons JK, Chin JL, Darke AK, Lippman SM, Goodman GE, Meyskens FL Jr, Baker LHVitamin E and the risk of prostate cancer: the Selenium and Vitamin E Cancer Prevention Trial (SELECT)JAMA.(2011 Oct 12)
    19. Prostate Cancer Risk - Lonn E, Bosch J, Yusuf S, Sheridan P, Pogue J, Arnold JM, Ross C, Arnold A, Sleight P, Probstfield J, Dagenais GR, HOPE and HOPE-TOO Trial InvestigatorsEffects of long-term vitamin E supplementation on cardiovascular events and cancer: a randomized controlled trialJAMA.(2005 Mar 16)
    20. Total cholesterol - Sanyal AJ, Chalasani N, Kowdley KV, McCullough A, Diehl AM, Bass NM, Neuschwander-Tetri BA, Lavine JE, Tonascia J, Unalp A, Van Natta M, Clark J, Brunt EM, Kleiner DE, Hoofnagle JH, Robuck PR, NASH CRNPioglitazone, vitamin E, or placebo for nonalcoholic steatohepatitisN Engl J Med.(2010 May 6)
    21. Total cholesterol - T Hasegawa, M Yoneda, K Nakamura, I Makino, A TeranoPlasma transforming growth factor-beta1 level and efficacy of alpha-tocopherol in patients with non-alcoholic steatohepatitis: a pilot studyAliment Pharmacol Ther.(2001 Oct)
    22. Cirrhosis Severity - Sumida Y, Naito Y, Tanaka S, Sakai K, Inada Y, Taketani H, Kanemasa K, Yasui K, Itoh Y, Okanoue T, Yoshikawa TLong-term (>=2 yr) efficacy of vitamin E for non-alcoholic steatohepatitisHepatogastroenterology.(2013 Sep)
    23. Liver Fat - Chee NM, Sinnanaidu RP, Chan WKVitamin E improves serum markers and histology in adults with metabolic dysfunction-associated steatotic liver disease: Systematic review and meta-analysis.J Gastroenterol Hepatol.(2024 Aug 16)
    24. Liver Enzymes - Miwa Kawanaka, Sabina Mahmood, Gouichi Niiyama, Akiyoshi Izumi, Ayumi Kamei, Hideji Ikeda, Mitsuhiko Suehiro, Kazumi Togawa, Takayo Sasagawa, Misako Okita, Hajime Nakamura, Junji Yodoi, Gotaro YamadaControl of oxidative stress and reduction in biochemical markers by Vitamin E treatment in patients with nonalcoholic steatohepatitis: a pilot studyHepatology Research.()
    25. TNF-Alpha - Wu JH, Ward NC, Indrawan AP, Almeida CA, Hodgson JM, Proudfoot JM, Puddey IB, Croft KDEffects of alpha-tocopherol and mixed tocopherol supplementation on markers of oxidative stress and inflammation in type 2 diabetesClin Chem.(2007 Mar)
    26. Thromboxane B2 - Clarke MW, Ward NC, Wu JH, Hodgson JM, Puddey IB, Croft KDSupplementation with mixed tocopherols increases serum and blood cell gamma-tocopherol but does not alter biomarkers of platelet activation in subjects with type 2 diabetesAm J Clin Nutr.(2006 Jan)
    27. DNA Damage - Winterbone MS, Sampson MJ, Saha S, Hughes JC, Hughes DAPro-oxidant effect of alpha-tocopherol in patients with type 2 diabetes after an oral glucose tolerance test--a randomised controlled trialCardiovasc Diabetol.(2007 Feb 22)
    28. DNA Damage - Sampson MJ, Astley S, Richardson T, Willis G, Davies IR, Hughes DA, Southon SIncreased DNA oxidative susceptibility without increased plasma LDL oxidizability in Type II diabetes: effects of alpha-tocopherol supplementationClin Sci (Lond).(2001 Sep)
    29. Type 2 Diabetes Incidence - Liu S, Lee IM, Song Y, Van Denburgh M, Cook NR, Manson JE, Buring JEVitamin E and risk of type 2 diabetes in the women's health study randomized controlled trialDiabetes.(2006 Oct)
    30. Rheumatoid Arthritis Risk - Karlson EW, Shadick NA, Cook NR, Buring JE, Lee IMVitamin E in the primary prevention of rheumatoid arthritis: the Women's Health StudyArthritis Rheum.(2008 Nov 15)
    31. Triglycerides - Tsai AC, Kelley JJ, Peng B, Cook NStudy on the effect of megavitamin E supplementation in manAm J Clin Nutr.(1978 May)
    32. Triglycerides - P M Farrell, J G BieriMegavitamin E supplementation in manAm J Clin Nutr.(1975 Dec)
    33. Serum T4 - Kitagawa M, Mino MEffects of elevated d-alpha(RRR)-tocopherol dosage in manJ Nutr Sci Vitaminol (Tokyo).(1989 Apr)
    34. Dysmenorrhea Symptoms - Ziaei S, Faghihzadeh S, Sohrabvand F, Lamyian M, Emamgholy TA randomised placebo-controlled trial to determine the effect of vitamin E in treatment of primary dysmenorrhoeaBJOG.(2001 Nov)
    35. Dysmenorrhea Symptoms - Ziaei S, Zakeri M, Kazemnejad AA randomised controlled trial of vitamin E in the treatment of primary dysmenorrhoeaBJOG.(2005 Apr)
    36. Dysmenorrhea Symptoms - Kashanian M, Lakeh MM, Ghasemi A, Noori SEvaluation of the effect of vitamin E on pelvic pain reduction in women suffering from primary dysmenorrheaJ Reprod Med.(2013 Jan-Feb)
    37. Free Testosterone - Yeksan M, Polat M, Türk S, Kazanci H, Akhan G, Erdogan Y, Erkul IEffect of vitamin E therapy on sexual functions of uremic patients in hemodialysisInt J Artif Organs.(1992 Nov)
    38. Anxiety Symptoms - Dadkhah H, Ebrahimi E, Fathizadeh NEvaluating the effects of vitamin D and vitamin E supplement on premenstrual syndrome: A randomized, double-blind, controlled trialIran J Nurs Midwifery Res.(2016 Mar-Apr)
    39. PMS Symptoms - Mandana Z, Azar AComparison of the Effect of Vit E, VitB6, Calcium and Omega-3 on the Treatment of Premenstrual Syndrome: A Clinical Randomized TrialAnnu Res Rev Biol.()
    40. PMS Symptoms - London RS, Sundaram G, Manimekalai S, Murphy L, Reynolds M, Goldstein PThe effect of alpha-tocopherol on premenstrual symptomatology: a double-blind study. II. Endocrine correlatesJ Am Coll Nutr.(1984)
    41. Aerobic Exercise Metrics - Rokitzki L, Logemann E, Huber G, Keck E, Keul Jalpha-Tocopherol supplementation in racing cyclists during extreme endurance trainingInt J Sport Nutr.(1994 Sep)
    42. Aerobic Exercise Metrics - McAnulty SR, McAnulty LS, Nieman DC, Morrow JD, Shooter LA, Holmes S, Heward C, Henson DAEffect of alpha-tocopherol supplementation on plasma homocysteine and oxidative stress in highly trained athletes before and after exhaustive exerciseJ Nutr Biochem.(2005 Sep)
    43. Blood Flow - Skyrme-Jones RA, O'Brien RC, Berry KL, Meredith ITVitamin E supplementation improves endothelial function in type I diabetes mellitus: a randomized, placebo-controlled studyJ Am Coll Cardiol.(2000 Jul)
    44. Immunity - Meydani SN, Leka LS, Fine BC, Dallal GE, Keusch GT, Singh MF, Hamer DHVitamin E and respiratory tract infections in elderly nursing home residents: a randomized controlled trialJAMA.(2004 Aug 18)
    45. Thromboembolism Risk - Glynn RJ, Ridker PM, Goldhaber SZ, Zee RY, Buring JEEffects of random allocation to vitamin E supplementation on the occurrence of venous thromboembolism: report from the Women's Health StudyCirculation.(2007 Sep 25)
    46. All-Cause Mortality - McNeil JJ, Robman L, Tikellis G, Sinclair MI, McCarty CA, Taylor HRVitamin E supplementation and cataract: randomized controlled trialOphthalmology.(2004 Jan)
    47. Asthma Symptoms - Pearson PJ, Lewis SA, Britton J, Fogarty AVitamin E supplements in asthma: a parallel group randomised placebo controlled trialThorax.(2004 Aug)
    48. All-Cause Mortality - Miller ER 3rd, Pastor-Barriuso R, Dalal D, Riemersma RA, Appel LJ, Guallar EMeta-analysis: high-dosage vitamin E supplementation may increase all-cause mortalityAnn Intern Med.(2005 Jan 4)
    49. Hair Regrowth - Beoy LA, Woei WJ, Hay YKEffects of tocotrienol supplementation on hair growth in human volunteersTrop Life Sci Res.(2010 Dec)
    50. Alzheimer's Disease Risk - Petersen RC, Thomas RG, Grundman M, Bennett D, Doody R, Ferris S, Galasko D, Jin S, Kaye J, Levey A, Pfeiffer E, Sano M, van Dyck CH, Thal LJ, Alzheimer's Disease Cooperative Study GroupVitamin E and donepezil for the treatment of mild cognitive impairmentN Engl J Med.(2005 Jun 9)
    51. Alzheimer's Disease Symptoms - Dysken MW, Sano M, Asthana S, Vertrees JE, Pallaki M, Llorente M, Love S, Schellenberg GD, McCarten JR, Malphurs J, Prieto S, Chen P, Loreck DJ, Trapp G, Bakshi RS, Mintzer JE, Heidebrink JL, Vidal-Cardona A, Arroyo LM, Cruz AR, Zachariah S, Kowall NW, Chopra MP, Craft S, Thielke S, Turvey CL, Woodman C, Monnell KA, Gordon K, Tomaska J, Segal Y, Peduzzi PN, Guarino PDEffect of vitamin E and memantine on functional decline in Alzheimer disease: the TEAM-AD VA cooperative randomized trialJAMA.(2014 Jan 1)
    52. Alzheimer's Disease Symptoms - Sano M, Ernesto C, Thomas RG, Klauber MR, Schafer K, Grundman M, Woodbury P, Growdon J, Cotman CW, Pfeiffer E, Schneider LS, Thal LJA controlled trial of selegiline, alpha-tocopherol, or both as treatment for Alzheimer's disease. The Alzheimer's Disease Cooperative StudyN Engl J Med.(1997 Apr 24)
    53. Cognitive Decline - Kang JH, Cook N, Manson J, Buring JE, Grodstein FA randomized trial of vitamin E supplementation and cognitive function in womenArch Intern Med.(2006 Dec 11-25)
    54. Scar Healing - Jenkins M, Alexander JW, MacMillan BG, Waymack JP, Kopcha RFailure of topical steroids and vitamin E to reduce postoperative scar formation following reconstructive surgeryJ Burn Care Rehabil.(1986 Jul-Aug)
    55. Scar Healing - Baumann LS, Spencer JThe effects of topical vitamin E on the cosmetic appearance of scarsDermatol Surg.(1999 Apr)
    56. Breast Tenderness - Parsay S, Olfati F, Nahidi STherapeutic effects of vitamin E on cyclic mastalgiaBreast J.(2009 Sep-Oct)
    57. Breast Tenderness - Shobeiri F, Oshvandi K, Nazari MClinical effectiveness of vitamin E and vitamin B6 for improving pain severity in cyclic mastalgiaIran J Nurs Midwifery Res.(2015 Nov-Dec)
    58. Ulcerative Colitis Symptoms - Seyed-Amir Mirbagheri, Behtash-Ghazi Nezami, Solmaz Assa, Mannan HajimahmoodiRectal administration of d-alpha tocopherol for active ulcerative colitis: a preliminary reportWorld J Gastroenterol.(2008 Oct 21)
    59. Plasma Vitamin E - Okebukola PO, Kansra S, Barrett JVitamin E supplementation in people with cystic fibrosis.Cochrane Database Syst Rev.(2020-Sep-06)