Cardiovascular Disease

    Written by:
    Marina Shkayeva

    Fact-checked

    by:

    Morgan Pfiffner, Rob Stenstrom
    Last Updated: October 13, 2024

    Cardiovascular disease (CVD) is a broad term that refers to various diseases of the heart and blood vessels. Atherosclerotic CVD (ASCVD) is the most common subtype of CVD and causes strokes and heart attacks.

    10 references on this page
    2,486,789 participants in 23 trials and 44 meta-analyses

    Overview

    Examine Database: Cardiovascular Disease

    Mediterranean Diet
    Resveratrol
    Cocoa Extract
    Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension (DASH) Diet
    Fish Oil
    Flaxseed
    Ginkgo Biloba
    Aspartame
    Grape Seed Extract
    Magnesium
    Vegan Diet
    Vitamin E
    Vitamin K
    Alpha-Linolenic Acid (ALA)
    Artificially Sweetened Beverages
    Berberine
    Black Currant
    Blueberry
    Boron
    Calcium
    Citrulline
    Cranberry
    Curcumin
    Dark Chocolate
    Eicosapentaenoic Acid
    Elderberry
    Garlic
    Green Coffee Extract
    Hesperidin
    High-Intensity Interval Training
    Krill Oil
    L-Carnitine
    Low-Fat Diet
    N-Acetylcysteine
    Nuts
    Omega-3 Fatty Acids
    Panax Ginseng (Korean Ginseng)
    Riboflavin (Vitamin B2)
    Rooibos
    Saffron
    Vitamin D
    Whey Protein

    Research FeedRead all studies

    Frequently asked questions

    Examine Database References

    1. All-Cause Mortality - Zhao B, Gan L, Yu K, Männistö S, Huang J, Albanes DRelationship between chocolate consumption and overall and cause-specific mortality, systematic review and updated meta-analysis.Eur J Epidemiol.(2022 Apr)
    2. All-Cause Mortality - Safi U Khan, Ahmad N Lone, Muhammad Shahzeb Khan, Salim S Virani, Roger S Blumenthal, Khurram Nasir, Michael Miller, Erin D Michos, Christie M Ballantyne, William E Boden, Deepak L BhattEffect of omega-3 fatty acids on cardiovascular outcomes: A systematic review and meta-analysisEClinicalMedicine.(2021 Jul 8)
    3. All-Cause Mortality - Wu G, Ji Q, Huang H, Zhu XThe efficacy of fish oil in preventing coronary heart disease: A systematic review and meta-analysis.Medicine (Baltimore).(2021-Sep-17)
    4. All-Cause Mortality - Buring JEAspirin prevents stroke but not MI in women; vitamin E has no effect on CV disease or cancerCleve Clin J Med.(2006 Sep)
    5. All-Cause Mortality - Lonn E, Bosch J, Yusuf S, Sheridan P, Pogue J, Arnold JM, Ross C, Arnold A, Sleight P, Probstfield J, Dagenais GR, HOPE and HOPE-TOO Trial InvestigatorsEffects of long-term vitamin E supplementation on cardiovascular events and cancer: a randomized controlled trialJAMA.(2005 Mar 16)
    6. All-Cause Mortality - Dobnig H, Pilz S, Scharnagl H, Renner W, Seelhorst U, Wellnitz B, Kinkeldei J, Boehm BO, Weihrauch G, Maerz WIndependent association of low serum 25-hydroxyvitamin d and 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin d levels with all-cause and cardiovascular mortalityArch Intern Med.(2008 Jun 23)
    7. Anxiety Symptoms - Ehsan Moazen-Zadeh, Seyed Hesameddin Abbasi, Hamideh Safi-Aghdam, Nazila Shahmansouri, Akram Arjmandi-Beglar, Azita Hajhosseinn Talasaz, Abbas Salehiomran, Saeedeh Forghani, Shahin AkhondzadehEffects of Saffron on Cognition, Anxiety, and Depression in Patients Undergoing Coronary Artery Bypass Grafting: A Randomized Double-Blind Placebo-Controlled TrialJ Altern Complement Med.(2018 Apr)
    8. Apolipoprotein A - Hadi A, Askarpour M, Ziaei R, Venkatakrishnan K, Ghaedi E, Ghavami AImpact of flaxseed supplementation on plasma lipoprotein(a) concentrations: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials.Phytother Res.(2020 Jul)
    9. Arterial Stiffness - Hajizadeh-Sharafabad F, Sharifi Zahabi E, Tarighat-Esfanjani ARole of whey protein in vascular function: a systematic review and meta-analysis of human intervention studies.Br J Nutr.(2022-Aug-28)
    10. Arterial Stiffness - Talebi S, Shirani M, Shokri-Mashhadi N, Sadeghi O, Karav S, Bagherniya M, Sahebkar AThe long-term and post-prandial effects of berry consumption on endothelial dysfunction in adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials.Int J Food Sci Nutr.(2025 Mar)
    11. Blood Flow - Clifton PMEffect of Grape Seed Extract and Quercetin on Cardiovascular and Endothelial Parameters in High-Risk SubjectsJ Biomed Biotechnol.(2004)
    12. Blood Flow - Ahn CM, Hong SJ, Choi SC, Park JH, Kim JS, Lim DSRed ginseng extract improves coronary flow reserve and increases absolute numbers of various circulating angiogenic cells in patients with first ST-segment elevation acute myocardial infarctionPhytother Res.(2011 Feb)
    13. Blood Pressure - Ndanuko RN, Tapsell LC, Charlton KE, Neale EP, Batterham MJDietary Patterns and Blood Pressure in Adults: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled TrialsAdv Nutr.(2016 Jan 15)
    14. Blood Pressure - Joshua Gibbs, Eleanor Gaskin, Chen Ji, Michelle A Miller, Francesco P CappuccioThe effect of plant-based dietary patterns on blood pressure: a systematic review and meta-analysis of controlled intervention trialsJ Hypertens.(2021 Jan)
    15. Blood Pressure - Ingrid Toews, Szimonetta Lohner, Daniela Küllenberg de Gaudry, Harriet Sommer, Joerg J MeerpohlAssociation Between Intake of Non-Sugar Sweeteners and Health Outcomes: Systematic Review and Meta-Analyses of Randomised and Non-Randomised Controlled Trials and Observational StudiesBMJ.(2019 Jan 2)
    16. Blood Pressure - Cowell OR, Mistry N, Deighton K, Matu J, Griffiths A, Minihane AM, Mathers JC, Shannon OM, Siervo MEffects of a Mediterranean diet on blood pressure: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials and observational studies.J Hypertens.(2021-Apr-01)
    17. Blood Pressure - Filippou CD, Thomopoulos CG, Kouremeti MM, Sotiropoulou LI, Nihoyannopoulos PI, Tousoulis DM, Tsioufis CPMediterranean diet and blood pressure reduction in adults with and without hypertension: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials.Clin Nutr.(2021-May)
    18. Blood Pressure - Horigan G, McNulty H, Ward M, Strain JJ, Purvis J, Scott JMRiboflavin lowers blood pressure in cardiovascular disease patients homozygous for the 677C-->T polymorphism in MTHFRJ Hypertens.(2010 Mar)
    19. Blood Pressure - Heidi A B Smith, Jeffrey A Canter, Karla G Christian, Davis C Drinkwater, Frank G Scholl, Brian W Christman, Geraldine D Rice, Frederick E Barr, Marshall L SummarNitric oxide precursors and congenital heart surgery: a randomized controlled trial of oral citrullineJ Thorac Cardiovasc Surg.(2006 Jul)
    20. Blood Pressure - Marques BCAA, Klein MRST, da Cunha MR, de Souza Mattos S, de Paula Nogueira L, de Paula T, Corrêa FM, Oigman W, Neves MFEffects of Oral Magnesium Supplementation on Vascular Function: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials.High Blood Press Cardiovasc Prev.(2020-Feb)
    21. Blood Pressure - Saba S, Faizi F, Sepandi M, Nehrir BEffect of short-term magnesium supplementation on anxiety, depression and sleep quality in patients after open-heart surgery.Magnes Res.(2022-Apr-01)
    22. Blood Pressure - Cormick G, Ciapponi A, Cafferata ML, Cormick MS, Belizán JMCalcium supplementation for prevention of primary hypertension.Cochrane Database Syst Rev.(2022 Jan 11)
    23. Blood glucose - Liu K, Zhou R, Wang B, Mi MTEffect of resveratrol on glucose control and insulin sensitivity: a meta-analysis of 11 randomized controlled trials.Am J Clin Nutr.(2014-Jun)
    24. C-Reactive Protein (CRP) - Soltani S, Chitsazi MJ, Salehi-Abargouei AThe effect of dietary approaches to stop hypertension (DASH) on serum inflammatory markers: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized trials.Clin Nutr.(2018 Apr)
    25. C-Reactive Protein (CRP) - Custodero C, Mankowski RT, Lee SA, Chen Z, Wu S, Manini TM, Hincapie Echeverri J, Sabbà C, Beavers DP, Cauley JA, Espeland MA, Fielding RA, Kritchevsky SB, Liu CK, McDermott MM, Miller ME, Tracy RP, Newman AB, Ambrosius WT, Pahor M, Anton SDEvidence-based nutritional and pharmacological interventions targeting chronic low-grade inflammation in middle-age and older adults: A systematic review and meta-analysis.Ageing Res Rev.(2018-Sep)
    26. C-Reactive Protein (CRP) - Haghighatdoost F, Hariri MCan resveratrol supplement change inflammatory mediators? A systematic review and meta-analysis on randomized clinical trials.Eur J Clin Nutr.(2019-Mar)
    27. C-Reactive Protein (CRP) - Schwingshackl L, Hoffmann GMediterranean dietary pattern, inflammation and endothelial function: a systematic review and meta-analysis of intervention trialsNutr Metab Cardiovasc Dis.(2014 Apr 1)
    28. C-Reactive Protein (CRP) - Nordmann AJ, Suter-Zimmermann K, Bucher HC, Shai I, Tuttle KR, Estruch R, Briel MMeta-analysis comparing Mediterranean to low-fat diets for modification of cardiovascular risk factors.Am J Med.(2011-Sep)
    29. C-Reactive Protein (CRP) - Mayr HL, Tierney AC, Thomas CJ, Ruiz-Canela M, Radcliffe J, Itsiopoulos CMediterranean-type diets and inflammatory markers in patients with coronary heart disease: a systematic review and meta-analysis.Nutr Res.(2018-Feb)
    30. C-Reactive Protein (CRP) - Rodríguez M, Ringstad L, Schäfer P, Just S, Hofer HW, Malmsten M, Siegel GReduction of atherosclerotic nanoplaque formation and size by Ginkgo biloba (EGb 761) in cardiovascular high-risk patientsAtherosclerosis.(2007 Jun)
    31. C-Reactive Protein (CRP) - Deutsch LEvaluation of the effect of Neptune Krill Oil on chronic inflammation and arthritic symptomsJ Am Coll Nutr.(2007 Feb)
    32. C-Reactive Protein (CRP) - Ibrahim Mohialdeen Gubari MEffect of omega-3 fatty acid supplementation on markers of inflammation and endothelial function in patients with chronic heart disease: A systematic review and meta-analysis.Cell Mol Biol (Noisy-le-grand).(2024 Jun 30)
    33. C-Reactive Protein (CRP) - Rahimlou M, Jahromi NB, Hasanyani N, Ahmadi AREffects of Flaxseed Interventions on Circulating Inflammatory Biomarkers: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials.Adv Nutr.(2019 Nov 1)
    34. Cardiovascular Disease Mortality - Becerra-Tomás N, Blanco Mejía S, Viguiliouk E, Khan T, Kendall CWC, Kahleova H, Rahelić D, Sievenpiper JL, Salas-Salvadó JMediterranean diet, cardiovascular disease and mortality in diabetes: A systematic review and meta-analysis of prospective cohort studies and randomized clinical trials.Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr.(Jan 24 2019)
    35. Cardiovascular Mortality - Karam G, Agarwal A, Sadeghirad B, Jalink M, Hitchcock CL, Ge L, Kiflen R, Ahmed W, Zea AM, Milenkovic J, Chedrawe MA, Rabassa M, El Dib R, Goldenberg JZ, Guyatt GH, Boyce E, Johnston BCComparison of seven popular structured dietary programmes and risk of mortality and major cardiovascular events in patients at increased cardiovascular risk: systematic review and network meta-analysis.BMJ.(2023-Mar-29)
    36. Creatinine - Abdollahi S, Vajdi M, Meshkini F, Vasmehjani AA, Sangsefidi ZS, Clark CCT, Soltani SResveratrol may mildly improve renal function in the general adult population: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled clinical trials.Nutr Res.(2023-May)
    37. Endothelial Function - Shannon OM, Mendes I, Köchl C, Mazidi M, Ashor AW, Rubele S, Minihane AM, Mathers JC, Siervo MMediterranean Diet Increases Endothelial Function in Adults: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials.J Nutr.(2020-May-01)
    38. High-density lipoprotein (HDL) - Men J, Zhao C, Xiang C, Zhu G, Yu Z, Wang P, Wu S, Zhang Y, Li Y, Wang L, Gong X, Yang X, Zou S, Ma J, Cui C, Li H, Ma X, Wu W, Wang YEffects of high-intensity interval training on physical morphology, cardiopulmonary function, and metabolic indicators in older adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis.Front Endocrinol (Lausanne).(2025-03-25)
    39. Intercellular Adhesion Molecule 1 - Mohammadipoor N, Shafiee F, Rostami A, Kahrizi MS, Soleimanpour H, Ghodsi M, Ansari MJ, Bokov DO, Jannat B, Mosharkesh E, Pour Abbasi MSResveratrol supplementation efficiently improves endothelial health: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials.Phytother Res.(2022-Sep)
    40. Muscle Oxygenation - Ramos-Junior OJF, Pinheiro VDS, Souza TGDS, Alvares TSEffect of Curcumin Intake on Skeletal Muscle Oxygen Saturation Parameters in Older Participants.Antioxidants (Basel).(2024 Sep 26)
    41. Osteocalcin - Geng C, Huang L, Pu L, Feng YEffects of vitamin K supplementation on vascular calcification in chronic kidney disease: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials.Front Nutr.(2022)
    42. Oxidative Stress Biomarkers - Suter A, Niemer W, Klopp RA new ginkgo fresh plant extract increases microcirculation and radical scavenging activity in elderly patientsAdv Ther.(2011 Dec)
    43. Risk Of Cardiovascular Disease - Curtis PJ, Kroon PA, Hollands WJ, Walls R, Jenkins G, Kay CD, Cassidy ACardiovascular disease risk biomarkers and liver and kidney function are not altered in postmenopausal women after ingesting an elderberry extract rich in anthocyanins for 12 weeks.J Nutr.(2009-Dec)
    44. ST-segment depression - A Cherchi, C Lai, F Angelino, G Trucco, S Caponnetto, P E Mereto, G Rosolen, U Manzoli, G Schiavoni, A RealeEffects of L-carnitine on exercise tolerance in chronic stable angina: a multicenter, double-blind, randomized, placebo controlled crossover studyInt J Clin Pharmacol Ther Toxicol.(1985 Oct)
    45. Stroke Risk - Buitrago-Lopez A, Sanderson J, Johnson L, Warnakula S, Wood A, Di Angelantonio E, Franco OHChocolate consumption and cardiometabolic disorders: systematic review and meta-analysis.BMJ.(2011 Aug 26)
    46. Stroke Risk - Kuller LH, Ives DG, Fitzpatrick AL, Carlson MC, Mercado C, Lopez OL, Burke GL, Furberg CD, DeKosky ST; Ginkgo Evaluation of Memory Study InvestigatorsDoes Ginkgo biloba reduce the risk of cardiovascular eventsCirc Cardiovasc Qual Outcomes.(2010 Jan)
    47. Total Antioxidant Capacity (TAC) - Musazadeh V, Jafarzadeh J, Keramati M, Zarezadeh M, Ahmadi M, Farrokhian Z, Ostadrahimi AFlaxseed Oil Supplementation Augments Antioxidant Capacity and Alleviates Oxidative Stress: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials.Evid Based Complement Alternat Med.(2021)
    48. Triglycerides - Militaru C, Donoiu I, Craciun A, Scorei ID, Bulearca AM, Scorei RIOral resveratrol and calcium fructoborate supplementation in subjects with stable angina pectoris: effects on lipid profiles, inflammation markers, and quality of lifeNutrition.(2013 Jan)
    49. Triglycerides - Asmaa S Abdelhamid, Tracey J Brown, Julii S Brainard, Priti Biswas, Gabrielle C Thorpe, Helen J Moore, Katherine Ho Deane, Carolyn D Summerbell, Helen V Worthington, Fujian Song, Lee HooperOmega-3 fatty acids for the primary and secondary prevention of cardiovascular diseaseCochrane Database Syst Rev.(2020 Feb 29)
    50. Triglycerides - Siervo M, Lara J, Chowdhury S, Ashor A, Oggioni C, Mathers JCEffects of the Dietary Approach to Stop Hypertension (DASH) diet on cardiovascular risk factors: a systematic review and meta-analysisBr J Nutr.(2015 Jan 14)
    51. Triglycerides - Karen Rees, Lena Al-Khudairy, Andrea Takeda, Saverio StrangesVegan dietary pattern for the primary and secondary prevention of cardiovascular diseasesCochrane Database Syst Rev.(2021 Feb 25)
    52. Triglycerides - Kar P, Laight D, Rooprai HK, Shaw KM, Cummings MEffects of grape seed extract in Type 2 diabetic subjects at high cardiovascular risk: a double blind randomized placebo controlled trial examining metabolic markers, vascular tone, inflammation, oxidative stress and insulin sensitivityDiabet Med.(2009 May)
    53. Triglycerides - Budoff MJ, Takasu J, Flores FR, Niihara Y, Lu B, Lau BH, Rosen RT, Amagase HInhibiting progression of coronary calcification using Aged Garlic Extract in patients receiving statin therapy: a preliminary studyPrev Med.(2004 Nov)
    54. Triglycerides - Sahar Rafiee, Hamed Mohammadi, Abed Ghavami, Erfan Sadeghi, Zahra Safari, Gholamreza AskariEfficacy of resveratrol supplementation in patients with nonalcoholic fatty liver disease: A systematic review and meta-analysis of clinical trialsComplement Ther Clin Pract.(2020 Dec 4)
    55. Triglycerides - Marnewick JL, Rautenbach F, Venter I, Neethling H, Blackhurst DM, Wolmarans P, Macharia MEffects of rooibos (Aspalathus linearis) on oxidative stress and biochemical parameters in adults at risk for cardiovascular diseaseJ Ethnopharmacol.(2011 Jan 7)
    56. Triglycerides - Hooper L, Kay C, Abdelhamid A, Kroon PA, Cohn JS, Rimm EB, Cassidy AEffects of chocolate, cocoa, and flavan-3-ols on cardiovascular health: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized trialsAm J Clin Nutr.(2012 Mar)
    57. Triglycerides - Grassi D, Necozione S, Lippi C, Croce G, Valeri L, Pasqualetti P, Desideri G, Blumberg JB, Ferri CCocoa reduces blood pressure and insulin resistance and improves endothelium-dependent vasodilation in hypertensivesHypertension.(2005 Aug)
    58. Triglycerides - Arisi TOP, da Silva DS, Stein E, Weschenfelder C, de Oliveira PC, Marcadenti A, Lehnen AM, Waclawovsky GEffects of Cocoa Consumption on Cardiometabolic Risk Markers: Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials.Nutrients.(2024 Jun 18)
    59. Triglycerides - Poppitt SD, Howe CA, Lithander FE, Silvers KM, Lin RB, Croft J, Ratnasabapathy Y, Gibson RA, Anderson CSEffects of moderate-dose omega-3 fish oil on cardiovascular risk factors and mood after ischemic stroke: a randomized, controlled trialStroke.(2009 Nov)
    60. Triglycerides - Hartley L, Clar C, Ghannam O, Flowers N, Stranges S, Rees KVitamin K for the primary prevention of cardiovascular diseaseCochrane Database Syst Rev.(2015 Sep 21)
    61. Triglycerides - Santos NC, de Araujo LM, De Luca Canto G, Guerra ENS, Coelho MS, Borin MFMetabolic effects of aspartame in adulthood: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized clinical trialsCrit Rev Food Sci Nutr.(2018)
    62. Triglycerides - Yang L, Zhu W, Zhang X, Zhou X, Wu W, Shen TEfficacy and safety of berberine for several cardiovascular diseases: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials.Phytomedicine.(2023-Apr)
    63. Triglycerides - Khorasanian AS, Fateh ST, Gholami F, Rasaei N, Gerami H, Khayyatzadeh SS, Shiraseb F, Asbaghi OThe effects of hesperidin supplementation on cardiovascular risk factors in adults: a systematic review and dose-response meta-analysis.Front Nutr.(2023)
    64. Triglycerides - Kastorini, C.M., et al.The effect of Mediterranean diet on metabolic syndrome and its components: a meta-analysis of 50 studies and 534,906 individualsJ Am Coll Cardiol.(2011-03-08)
    65. Triglycerides - Bersch-Ferreira ÂC, Stein E, Waclawovsky G, da Silva LR, Machado RHV, Weschenfelder C, Figueiro MF, Suzumura EA, Santos RHN, Duarte GBS, Rogero MM, de Abreu-Silva EO, Cavalcanti AB, Marcadenti AEffect of nuts on lipid profile and inflammatory biomarkers in atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials.Eur J Nutr.(2024 Jul 5)
    66. Triglycerides - Pourmasoumi M, Hadi A, Marx W, Najafgholizadeh A, Kaur S, Sahebkar AThe Effect of Green Coffee Bean Extract on Cardiovascular Risk Factors: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis.Adv Exp Med Biol.(2021)
    67. Urinary NOx - Dimitrios Tsikas, Jonas Niemann, Markus Flentje, Alexandra Schwarz, Paschalis TossiosN-Acetylcysteine (NAC) inhibits renal nitrite and nitrate reabsorption in healthy subjects and in patients undergoing cardiac surgery: risk of nitric oxide (NO) bioavailability loss by NAC?Int J Cardiol.(2014 Nov 15)
    Cardiovascular Disease: Symptoms, causes, treatments, and your questions answered.