Metabolic Health
•Last Updated: August 16, 2022
Metabolic health is defined as having ideal levels of blood glucose (blood sugar), triglycerides, cholesterol, blood pressure, and waist circumference without the use of medications. Metabolic health can also include the ability to regulate inflammation in the body.
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Last Updated:August 16, 2022
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Marasmus is a disease of caloric restriction, but you most likely don't have it. Your metabolic rate can definitely slow down during weight loss, but it will never slow to the point where it causes you to gain weight; in this sense, "starvation mode" is a myth.
For the purpose of this article, 'Starvation Mode' is defined as a concept where your metabolic rate declines during the process of caloric restriction or weight loss to such a degree that further weight loss becomes impossible or weight gain occurs.
Starvation mode, according to the above definition, is for all practical intents and purposes a myth. It seems to have originated from the Minnesota Starvation Experiment[1], where participants were given 50% of their maintenance calories for months. They lost weight until their body simply had no source for ample calories (fat storage or food intake).
The notion that weight loss can be outright halted secondary to caloric restriction is currently unsupported, although a reduction of metabolic rate may occur. The process of losing weight itself can reduce caloric expenditure as all tissue requires some energy to exist, and most of the reduction in energy expenditure from weight loss can be accounted for from this.[2]
In regards to case studies, there is one recorded report of an obese man fasting for 382 days (medically supervised) which was associated with a lowered metabolic rate but not a cessation of weight loss due to it.[3]
The number of calories you burn is based on your resting metabolic rate, the thermic effect of food, and physical activity.
The words “slow metabolism” are incredibly overused. As in “I just can’t lose weight anymore; my metabolism has really slowed down.” Or “I’m not like you, I can’t just eat everything I want. Your metabolism’s faster than mine.”
Before blaming weight-loss failures on metabolic rates, let’s take a comprehensive look at how metabolic rates differ between people, what makes up your metabolic rate, and how all that changes when dieting or exercising.
What exactly goes into metabolism?
To understand metabolism, you have to understand just a few basic terms. The energy your body burns in a day is called your total daily energy expenditure (TDEE), which has three components: resting metabolic rate, thermic effect of food, and activity energy expenditure.
1. Resting metabolic rate (RMR)
Technically, “metabolism” is the sum of all the chemical processes that keep your body alive. Colloquially, most people think of “metabolism” as the energy burn from the resting metabolic rate (RMR), which is the energy your body uses to stay alive, accounting for about about 70% of the TDEE of sedentary people.[4][5] And yes, there do exist people with a “fast metabolism” — a.k.a. high RMR — but their metabolic advantage isn’t as overwhelming as you’d think.
Most people (68%) stay within just 8% of the average RMR, and the vast majority (96%) within 16%. In other words, 96% of people stay within 200–300 kcal of the average RMR.[6]
Your RMR is mostly determined by your fat-free mass (FFM), even though most of it is water and thus not metabolically active. Your brain and visceral organs add up to only 12% of the active components of your FFM (even less if you’re muscular), yet they use a lot of energy: 200–440 kcal/kg/day (91–200 kcal/lb/day). By comparison, your skeletal muscle at rest requires only 13 kcal/kg/day (6 kcal/lb/day), which is still a lot more than the 4.5 kcal/kg/day (2 kcal/lb/day) you need to maintain your fat stores.[5]
It turns out that your natural RMR is a poor predictor of future weight gain,[7][8] which suggests that people with a high RMR compensate for burning more by eating more. Conversely, people with a low RMR may compensate for burning less by eating less — with one notable exception. One meta-analysis of 12 studies showed that high rates of weight regain were associated with a 3–5% lower RMR in formerly obese compared with control individuals.[9] But was the RMR of these formerly obese people their “natural” RMR? Probably not.…
Contrary to popular belief, obesity is associated with a high metabolic rate[10], as a heavier body needs more energy to do just about everything, from running down to breathing. However, people who slash down calories to lose a lot of weight very fast risk slowing their metabolism to below its “natural” level — maybe permanently. They feel hungry all the time, as their body fights to recover the energy stores (mostly, the fat) it lost too fast.
RMR can also slow as you age, since the older you get, the less FFM you have and the fewer energy-generating mitochondria dwell in your cells. It can also differ according to sex (not only do men normally have a higher FFM:BF ratio, but their organs consume more calories)[11], genetics, and possibly gut bacteria. However, aside from your FFM, the factor that has the greatest impact on your RMR is temperature — both internal and external.
Even when both you and the weather are fine, you spend some ⅔ of your RMR to maintain a constant body temperature. To increase your core temperature by one degree celsius can require your RMR to go up by 10–13%.[12][13] That’s why cold exposure (through ice baths and other methods) has been promoted for weight loss.
Although people can have a fast or slow metabolism, extremes are pretty rare, often resulting from disease or prior obesity. Around 96% of people stay within 200–300 kcal of the average metabolism. Moreover, resting metabolic rates (RMRs) are not well correlated with weight gain.
2. Thermic effect of food (TEF)
Some of the calories in the food you ingest will be used to digest, absorb, and metabolize the rest of the food, and some will end burned off as heat. The overall process is known indifferently as thermic effect of food (TEF), dietary induced thermogenesis (DIT), or specific dynamic action (SDA).
TEF represents about 10% of the caloric intake of healthy adults eating a standard mixed diet,[14] but your actual number will depend on various factors, such as your lean body mass and the size and composition of your meal. The energy required to digest each macronutrient (its TEF) can be expressed as a percentage of the energy provided by this macronutrient:[15]
- Fat provides 9 Calories per gram, and its TEF is 0–3%.
- Carbohydrate provides 4 Calories per gram, and its TEF is 5–10%.
- Protein provides 4 Calories per gram, and its TEF is 20–30%.
This is one of the reasons why increasing your protein intake can help you lose fat, in addition to preserving your muscle mass when you eat below maintenance.
Protein burns, by far, the most energy of any of the three macronutrients. For that reason, and because of its protective effect on muscle mass, protein plays a central role in many diet templates.
3. Activity energy expenditure (AEE)
Activity energy expenditure (AEE) is the most variable aspect of the TDEE, ranging from 15% in very sedentary individuals to 50% in highly active individuals.[16] It comprises both physical activity (PA) and spontaneous physical activity (SPA), also known as non-exercise activity thermogenesis.
PA covers significant physical effort, such as lifting weights, running, or riding a bike, whereas SPA covers minor, often subconscious acts of daily life,[17] such as fidgeting,[18] chewing, walking short distances, or maintaining one’s posture. Studies in respiratory chambers[19][20] and in free-living environments suggest that SPA accounts for 4–17% of the TDEE, or about 100–700 kcal/day.
Outside your resting metabolic rate and the energy that’s burned by eating food, somewhere between 15 and 50% of your energy burn comes from activity. This activity can be exercise or any of the dozens of activities/movements associated with living.
So what can change someone’s metabolic rate?
1. What can increase your RMR
Exercise! Yes, your resting metabolic rate can increase. The increase in metabolic activity from exercise can outlast your workout. In fact, excess post-exercise oxygen consumption (EPOC) can last for more than a day after you stop exercising, depending on the duration and intensity of your physical activity.
Aerobic activities and anaerobic activities affect your RMR differently. Aerobic activities tend to burn more calories during exercise, but not a lot afterward (low EPOC). Anaerobic activities, on the other hand, can stoke your furnace for hours after you stopped exercising (high EPOC).[21] In addition, anaerobic activities are better for building muscle, which requires additional energy.[22]
But what happens after you’ve reached a plateau and your muscle mass stops increasing? Do your muscles now require only maintenance levels of energy (13 kcal/kg/day, as we’ve seen), even if you exercise daily? No, they need more, because each time you exercise you damage them and must expend energy to repair them. This still counts as “muscle maintenance” (muscles get constantly destroyed and rebuilt even in sedentary people), but the caloric cost is much higher.
What other methods are there to increase your RMR? As we’ve seen, it’s been estimated that for every degree celsius increase in core temperature, your RMR rises by 10–13%. Therefore, some people wrap themselves in cold packs, turn down the heat in their houses, wear less clothing outside, or even bathe in ice. That would certainly increase their RMR, but these methods can be unsafe if improperly used or if you have certain medical conditions.
We probably need to mention meal frequency, but only to note that there’s no evidence to support the idea that eating more often will increase your RMR.[23][24][25][26] Rather, it’s the total number of calories that determines changes in body weight.
Of course, many are the supplements touted to boost your metabolic rate, but very few actually have evidence in even limited populations. We cover these in greater depth in our Fat Loss Supplement Guide.
One of the most useful fat loss hacks doesn’t address RMR, but rather spontaneous physical activity (SPA). Standing for around half of your work day can burn almost 200 extra kilocalories, compared to sitting.[27] That’s a simple, reliable, sweat-free way to burn calories.
Regular exercise can increase your resting metabolic rate, as can other methods, such as cold exposure (with an eye to safety). Moreover, although taking the stairs rather than the elevator or standing while working won’t noticeably boost your RMR, this kind of small effort can be an easy way to burn more calories each day.
2. What can decrease your RMR
Unfortunately, losing weight translates into a decrease in RMR.[28] The very process of eating below maintenance will reduce your RMR by 5–15%, as your body becomes more sensitive to various hormones and neurotransmitters that regulate how energy is used and expended.[29]
This reaction is known as adaptive thermogenesis.[30] During a hypocaloric diet, not only will your body clamor for more calories (you’ll be hungry), but it will also prevent your cells from spending as much energy (if you play sports, your performance will likely decline).
If you’ve dieted sensibly, your RMR should return to normal when you resume eating enough calories to equal your TDEE. You may also maintain your RMR through periodic “refeeding” days, when you refill your liver glycogen stores and try to convince your body that you’re not really dieting so hard.
Your RMR will decrease as you lose weight, since weighing less means having less body tissue to support (among other factors). Unless you diet too hard for too long, your RMR should normalize after the dieting period is over.
In popular lore, someone with “a fast metabolism” is someone whose high resting metabolic rate (RMR) allows him or her to eat a seemingly infinite amount of food without any fat gain. Past their growing years, such people don’t exist. While some adults do have a higher natural RMR than their peers, interindividual variations tend to stay within a range of 200–300 kcal/day. Moreover, people with higher caloric requirements tend to compensate by eating more, so that one’s natural RMR is a poor predictor of weight gain.
The good news is that if you want to rev up your metabolism, you can. Anaerobic activities can increase your RMR for more than a day; they can also increase your muscle mass, thus further heightening your caloric requirements. They’re a safer way to lose fat than cutting your caloric intake drastically, which can result in your body fighting back, your RMR taking a lasting hit, and endless yo-yo dieting. Yes, to shed fat, you do need to spend more energy than you ingest; but the more severe the deficit, the easier it’ll be to regain whatever fat you lost.
There are many ways to calculate your resting metabolic rate. The Mifflin-St. Jeor equation appears to most accurate.
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- Oxygen Uptake - Shin KO, Moritani TAlterations of autonomic nervous activity and energy metabolism by capsaicin ingestion during aerobic exercise in healthy menJ Nutr Sci Vitaminol (Tokyo).(2007 Apr)
- Blood glucose - Chaiyasit K, Khovidhunkit W, Wittayalertpanya SPharmacokinetic and the effect of capsaicin in Capsicum frutescens on decreasing plasma glucose levelJ Med Assoc Thai.(2009 Jan)
- Oxygen Uptake - Scribbans TD, Ma JK, Edgett BA, Vorobej KA, Mitchell AS, Zelt JG, Simpson CA, Quadrilatero J, Gurd BJResveratrol supplementation does not augment performance adaptations or fibre-type-specific responses to high-intensity interval training in humansAppl Physiol Nutr Metab.(2014 Nov)
- Oxygen Uptake - Wei Hung, Tsung-Han Liu, Chung-Yu Chen, Chen-Kang ChangEffect of β-hydroxy-β-methylbutyrate Supplementation During Energy Restriction in Female Judo AthletesJournal of Exercise Science & Fitness.()
- Blood glucose - Kars M, Yang L, Gregor MF, Mohammed BS, Pietka TA, Finck BN, Patterson BW, Horton JD, Mittendorfer B, Hotamisligil GS, Klein STauroursodeoxycholic Acid may improve liver and muscle but not adipose tissue insulin sensitivity in obese men and womenDiabetes.(2010 Aug)
- Blood glucose - Jones ML, Martoni CJ, Di Pietro E, Simon RR, Prakash SEvaluation of clinical safety and tolerance of a Lactobacillus reuteri NCIMB 30242 supplement capsule: a randomized control trialRegul Toxicol Pharmacol.(2012 Jul)
- Blood glucose - Paradis ME, Couture P, Lamarche BA randomised crossover placebo-controlled trial investigating the effect of brown seaweed (Ascophyllum nodosum and Fucus vesiculosus) on postchallenge plasma glucose and insulin levels in men and womenAppl Physiol Nutr Metab.(2011 Dec)
- Blood glucose - Partsalaki I, Karvela A, Spiliotis BEMetabolic impact of a ketogenic diet compared to a hypocaloric diet in obese children and adolescentsJ Pediatr Endocrinol Metab.(2012)
- Blood glucose - Bisschop PH, Pereira Arias AM, Ackermans MT, Endert E, Pijl H, Kuipers F, Meijer AJ, Sauerwein HP, Romijn JAThe effects of carbohydrate variation in isocaloric diets on glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis in healthy menJ Clin Endocrinol Metab.(2000 May)
- Blood glucose - Rosenbaum M, Hall KD, Guo J, Ravussin E, Mayer LS, Reitman ML, Smith SR, Walsh BT, Leibel RLGlucose and Lipid Homeostasis and Inflammation in Humans Following an Isocaloric Ketogenic DietObesity (Silver Spring).(2019 Jun)
- Blood glucose - Kirk E, Reeds DN, Finck BN, Mayurranjan SM, Patterson BW, Klein SDietary fat and carbohydrates differentially alter insulin sensitivity during caloric restrictionGastroenterology.(2009 May)
- Blood glucose - Sharman MJ, Gómez AL, Kraemer WJ, Volek JSVery low-carbohydrate and low-fat diets affect fasting lipids and postprandial lipemia differently in overweight menJ Nutr.(2004 Apr)
- Blood glucose - Brehm BJ, Seeley RJ, Daniels SR, D'Alessio DAA randomized trial comparing a very low carbohydrate diet and a calorie-restricted low fat diet on body weight and cardiovascular risk factors in healthy womenJ Clin Endocrinol Metab.(2003 Apr)
- Blood glucose - Hernandez TL, Sutherland JP, Wolfe P, Allian-Sauer M, Capell WH, Talley ND, Wyatt HR, Foster GD, Hill JO, Eckel RHLack of suppression of circulating free fatty acids and hypercholesterolemia during weight loss on a high-fat, low-carbohydrate dietAm J Clin Nutr.(2010 Mar)
- Blood glucose - Marianne Raff, Tine Tholstrup, Samar Basu, Pernille Nonboe, Martin Tang Sørensen, Ellen Marie StraarupA diet rich in conjugated linoleic acid and butter increases lipid peroxidation but does not affect atherosclerotic, inflammatory, or diabetic risk markers in healthy young menJ Nutr.(2008 Mar)
- Blood glucose - Nazare JA, de la Perrière AB, Bonnet F, Desage M, Peyrat J, Maitrepierre C, Louche-Pelissier C, Bruzeau J, Goudable J, Lassel T, Vidal H, Laville MDaily intake of conjugated linoleic acid-enriched yoghurts: effects on energy metabolism and adipose tissue gene expression in healthy subjectsBr J Nutr.(2007 Feb)
- Blood glucose - Colakoglu S, Colakoglu M, Taneli F, Cetinoz F, Turkmen MCumulative effects of conjugated linoleic acid and exercise on endurance development, body composition, serum leptin and insulin levelsJ Sports Med Phys Fitness.(2006 Dec)
- Blood glucose - Tricon S, Burdge GC, Jones EL, Russell JJ, El-Khazen S, Moretti E, Hall WL, Gerry AB, Leake DS, Grimble RF, Williams CM, Calder PC, Yaqoob PEffects of dairy products naturally enriched with cis-9,trans-11 conjugated linoleic acid on the blood lipid profile in healthy middle-aged menAm J Clin Nutr.(2006 Apr)
- Blood glucose - A Brianne Thrush, Adrian Chabowski, George J Heigenhauser, Brian W McBride, Mamun Or-Rashid, David J DyckConjugated linoleic acid increases skeletal muscle ceramide content and decreases insulin sensitivity in overweight, non-diabetic humansAppl Physiol Nutr Metab.(2007 Jun)
- Insulin - Lambert EV, Goedecke JH, Bluett K, Heggie K, Claassen A, Rae DE, West S, Dugas J, Dugas L, Meltzeri S, Charlton K, Mohede IConjugated linoleic acid versus high-oleic acid sunflower oil: effects on energy metabolism, glucose tolerance, blood lipids, appetite and body composition in regularly exercising individualsBr J Nutr.(2007 May)
- Weight - Close RN, Schoeller DA, Watras AC, Nora EHConjugated linoleic acid supplementation alters the 6-mo change in fat oxidation during sleepAm J Clin Nutr.(2007 Sep)
- Weight - Diaz ML, Watkins BA, Li Y, Anderson RA, Campbell WWChromium picolinate and conjugated linoleic acid do not synergistically influence diet- and exercise-induced changes in body composition and health indexes in overweight womenJ Nutr Biochem.(2008 Jan)
- Weight - Risérus U, Vessby B, Arnlöv J, Basu SEffects of cis-9,trans-11 conjugated linoleic acid supplementation on insulin sensitivity, lipid peroxidation, and proinflammatory markers in obese menAm J Clin Nutr.(2004 Aug)
- Weight - Whigham LD, O'Shea M, Mohede IC, Walaski HP, Atkinson RLSafety profile of conjugated linoleic acid in a 12-month trial in obese humansFood Chem Toxicol.(2004 Oct)
- High-density lipoprotein (HDL) - Tine Tholstrup, Marianne Raff, Ellen M Straarup, Pia Lund, Samar Basu, Jens M BruunAn oil mixture with trans-10, cis-12 conjugated linoleic acid increases markers of inflammation and in vivo lipid peroxidation compared with cis-9, trans-11 conjugated linoleic acid in postmenopausal womenJ Nutr.(2008 Aug)
- High-density lipoprotein (HDL) - Sato K, Shinohara N, Honma T, Ito J, Arai T, Nosaka N, Aoyama T, Tsuduki T, Ikeda IThe change in conjugated linoleic acid concentration in blood of Japanese fed a conjugated linoleic acid dietJ Nutr Sci Vitaminol (Tokyo).(2011)
- Glycemic Control - Eyjolfson V, Spriet LL, Dyck DJConjugated linoleic acid improves insulin sensitivity in young, sedentary humansMed Sci Sports Exerc.(2004 May)
- Body Fat - Sneddon AA, Tsofliou F, Fyfe CL, Matheson I, Jackson DM, Horgan G, Winzell MS, Wahle KW, Ahren B, Williams LMEffect of a conjugated linoleic acid and omega-3 fatty acid mixture on body composition and adiponectinObesity (Silver Spring).(2008 May)
- Liver Enzymes - Smedman A, Vessby B, Basu SIsomer-specific effects of conjugated linoleic acid on lipid peroxidation in humans: regulation by alpha-tocopherol and cyclo-oxygenase-2 inhibitorClin Sci (Lond).(2004 Jan)
- Oxidative Stress Biomarkers - Kuhnt K, Wagner A, Kraft J, Basu S, Jahreis GDietary supplementation with 11trans- and 12trans-18:1 and oxidative stress in humansAm J Clin Nutr.(2006 Nov)
- Metabolic Rate - Kamphuis MM, Lejeune MP, Saris WH, Westerterp-Plantenga MSThe effect of conjugated linoleic acid supplementation after weight loss on body weight regain, body composition, and resting metabolic rate in overweight subjectsInt J Obes Relat Metab Disord.(2003 Jul)
- Blood glucose - Blacker BC, Snyder SM, Eggett DL, Parker TLConsumption of blueberries with a high-carbohydrate, low-fat breakfast decreases postprandial serum markers of oxidationBr J Nutr.(2013 May)
- Blood glucose - Colin D Kay, Bruce J HolubThe effect of wild blueberry (Vaccinium angustifolium) consumption on postprandial serum antioxidant status in human subjectsBr J Nutr.(2002 Oct)
- Blood glucose - Clegg ME, Pratt M, Meade CM, Henry CJThe addition of raspberries and blueberries to a starch-based food does not alter the glycaemic responseBr J Nutr.(2011 Aug)
- Heart Rate - Del Bo C, Riso P, Campolo J, Møller P, Loft S, Klimis-Zacas D, Brambilla A, Rizzolo A, Porrini MA single portion of blueberry (Vaccinium corymbosum L) improves protection against DNA damage but not vascular function in healthy male volunteersNutr Res.(2013 Mar)
- DNA Damage - Riso P, Klimis-Zacas D, Del Bo' C, Martini D, Campolo J, Vendrame S, Møller P, Loft S, De Maria R, Porrini MEffect of a wild blueberry (Vaccinium angustifolium) drink intervention on markers of oxidative stress, inflammation and endothelial function in humans with cardiovascular risk factorsEur J Nutr.(2013 Apr)
- DNA Damage - Wilms LC, Boots AW, de Boer VC, Maas LM, Pachen DM, Gottschalk RW, Ketelslegers HB, Godschalk RW, Haenen GR, van Schooten FJ, Kleinjans JCImpact of multiple genetic polymorphisms on effects of a 4-week blueberry juice intervention on ex vivo induced lymphocytic DNA damage in human volunteersCarcinogenesis.(2007 Aug)
- Blood glucose - Hang Guo, Ai Saiga, Mikako Sato, Izumi Miyazawa, Makoto Shibata, Yoshihisa Takahata, Fumiki MorimatsuRoyal jelly supplementation improves lipoprotein metabolism in humansJ Nutr Sci Vitaminol (Tokyo).(2007 Aug)
- Blood glucose - Morita H, Ikeda T, Kajita K, Fujioka K, Mori I, Okada H, Uno Y, Ishizuka TEffect of royal jelly ingestion for six months on healthy volunteersNutr J.(2012 Sep 21)
- Blood glucose - Guerrero-Romero F, Rodríguez-Morán MMagnesium improves the beta-cell function to compensate variation of insulin sensitivity: double-blind, randomized clinical trialEur J Clin Invest.(2011 Apr)
- Blood glucose - Lee S, Park HK, Son SP, Lee CW, Kim IJ, Kim HJEffects of oral magnesium supplementation on insulin sensitivity and blood pressure in normo-magnesemic nondiabetic overweight Korean adultsNutr Metab Cardiovasc Dis.(2009 Dec)
- Blood glucose - Mooren FC, Krüger K, Völker K, Golf SW, Wadepuhl M, Kraus AOral magnesium supplementation reduces insulin resistance in non-diabetic subjects - a double-blind, placebo-controlled, randomized trialDiabetes Obes Metab.(2011 Mar)
- Blood glucose - Vedat Cinar, Yahya Polat, Rasim Mogulkoc, Mustafa Nizamlioglu, Abdulkerim Kasim BaltaciThe effect of magnesium supplementation on glucose and insulin levels of tae-kwan-do sportsmen and sedentary subjectsPak J Pharm Sci.(2008 Jul)
- Total Antioxidant Capacity (TAC) - Nicola Veronese, Damiano Pizzol, Lee Smith, Ligia J Dominguez, Mario BarbagalloEffect of Magnesium Supplementation on Inflammatory Parameters: A Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled TrialsNutrients.(2022 Feb 5)
- C-Reactive Protein (CRP) - Talebi S, Miraghajani M, Hosseini R, Mohammadi HThe Effect of Oral Magnesium Supplementation on Inflammatory Biomarkers in Adults: A Comprehensive Systematic Review and Dose-response Meta-analysis of Randomized Clinical Trials.Biol Trace Elem Res.(2022-Apr)
- Insulin Resistance - Guerrero-Romero F, Tamez-Perez HE, González-González G, Salinas-Martínez AM, Montes-Villarreal J, Treviño-Ortiz JH, Rodríguez-Morán MOral magnesium supplementation improves insulin sensitivity in non-diabetic subjects with insulin resistance. A double-blind placebo-controlled randomized trial.Diabetes Metab.(2004-Jun)
- Cortisol - Cinar V, Mogulkoc R, Baltaci AK, Polat YAdrenocorticotropic hormone and cortisol levels in athletes and sedentary subjects at rest and exhaustion: effects of magnesium supplementationBiol Trace Elem Res.(2008 Mar)
- Blood glucose - Collene AL, Hertzler SR, Williams JA, Wolf BWEffects of a nutritional supplement containing Salacia oblonga extract and insulinogenic amino acids on postprandial glycemia, insulinemia, and breath hydrogen responses in healthy adultsNutrition.(2005 Jul-Aug)
- Blood glucose - Heacock PM, Hertzler SR, Williams JA, Wolf BWEffects of a medical food containing an herbal alpha-glucosidase inhibitor on postprandial glycemia and insulinemia in healthy adultsJ Am Diet Assoc.(2005 Jan)
- Blood glucose - Schwab U, Törrönen A, Toppinen L, Alfthan G, Saarinen M, Aro A, Uusitupa MBetaine supplementation decreases plasma homocysteine concentrations but does not affect body weight, body composition, or resting energy expenditure in human subjectsAm J Clin Nutr.(2002 Nov)
- Homocysteine - Brouwer IA, Verhoef P, Urgert RBetaine supplementation and plasma homocysteine in healthy volunteersArch Intern Med.(2000 Sep 11)
- Homocysteine - Schwab U, Törrönen A, Meririnne E, Saarinen M, Alfthan G, Aro A, Uusitupa MOrally administered betaine has an acute and dose-dependent effect on serum betaine and plasma homocysteine concentrations in healthy humansJ Nutr.(2006 Jan)
- Homocysteine - Atkinson W, Slow S, Elmslie J, Lever M, Chambers ST, George PMDietary and supplementary betaine: effects on betaine and homocysteine concentrations in malesNutr Metab Cardiovasc Dis.(2009 Dec)
- Homocysteine - Steenge GR, Verhoef P, Katan MBBetaine supplementation lowers plasma homocysteine in healthy men and womenJ Nutr.(2003 May)
- Homocysteine - Margreet R. Olthof, Trinette van Vliet, Esther Boelsma, and Petra VerhoefLow Dose Betaine Supplementation Leads to Immediate and Long Term Lowering of Plasma Homocysteine in Healthy Men and WomenThe Journal of Nutrition.()
- Blood glucose - Wu AH, Spicer D, Stanczyk FZ, Tseng CC, Yang CS, Pike MCEffect of 2-month controlled green tea intervention on lipoprotein cholesterol, glucose, and hormone levels in healthy postmenopausal womenCancer Prev Res (Phila).(2012 Mar)
- Insulin - Venables MC, Hulston CJ, Cox HR, Jeukendrup AEGreen tea extract ingestion, fat oxidation, and glucose tolerance in healthy humansAm J Clin Nutr.(2008 Mar)
- Fat Oxidation - Gregersen NT, Bitz C, Krog-Mikkelsen I, Hels O, Kovacs EM, Rycroft JA, Frandsen E, Mela DJ, Astrup AEffect of moderate intakes of different tea catechins and caffeine on acute measures of energy metabolism under sedentary conditionsBr J Nutr.(2009 Oct)
- Fat Oxidation - Ichinose T, Nomura S, Someya Y, Akimoto S, Tachiyashiki K, Imaizumi KEffect of endurance training supplemented with green tea extract on substrate metabolism during exercise in humansScand J Med Sci Sports.(2011 Aug)
- Metabolic Rate - Lonac MC, Richards JC, Schweder MM, Johnson TK, Bell CInfluence of short-term consumption of the caffeine-free, epigallocatechin-3-gallate supplement, Teavigo, on resting metabolism and the thermic effect of feedingObesity (Silver Spring).(2011 Feb)
- Iron Absorption - Ullmann U, Haller J, Bakker GC, Brink EJ, Weber PEpigallocatechin gallate (EGCG) (TEAVIGO) does not impair nonhaem-iron absorption in manPhytomedicine.(2005 Jun)
- Blood glucose - Raut AA, Rege NN, Tadvi FM, Solanki PV, Kene KR, Shirolkar SG, Pandey SN, Vaidya RA, Vaidya ABExploratory study to evaluate tolerability, safety, and activity of Ashwagandha (Withania somnifera) in healthy volunteersJ Ayurveda Integr Med.(2012 Jul)
- Oxidative Stress Biomarkers - Kuchewar VV, Borkar MA, Nisargandha MAEvaluation of antioxidant potential of Rasayana drugs in healthy human volunteersAyu.(2014 Jan)
- Blood glucose - Kelishadi R, Hashemipour M, Adeli K, Tavakoli N, Movahedian-Attar A, Shapouri J, Poursafa P, Rouzbahani AEffect of zinc supplementation on markers of insulin resistance, oxidative stress, and inflammation among prepubescent children with metabolic syndromeMetab Syndr Relat Disord.(2010 Dec)
- C-Reactive Protein (CRP) - Bao B, Prasad AS, Beck FW, Fitzgerald JT, Snell D, Bao GW, Singh T, Cardozo LJZinc decreases C-reactive protein, lipid peroxidation, and inflammatory cytokines in elderly subjects: a potential implication of zinc as an atheroprotective agentAm J Clin Nutr.(2010 Jun)
- Iron Absorption - Olivares M, Pizarro F, Ruz MNew insights about iron bioavailability inhibition by zincNutrition.(2007 Apr)
- Testosterone - Kilic MEffect of fatiguing bicycle exercise on thyroid hormone and testosterone levels in sedentary males supplemented with oral zincNeuro Endocrinol Lett.(2007 Oct)
- Blood glucose - Reay JL, Scholey AB, Milne A, Fenwick J, Kennedy DOPanax ginseng has no effect on indices of glucose regulation following acute or chronic ingestion in healthy volunteersBr J Nutr.(2009 Jun)
- Blood glucose - De Souza LR, Jenkins AL, Sievenpiper JL, Jovanovski E, Rahelić D, Vuksan VKorean red ginseng (Panax ginseng C.A. Meyer) root fractions: differential effects on postprandial glycemia in healthy individualsJ Ethnopharmacol.(2011 Sep 1)
- Blood glucose - Jung HL, Kwak HE, Kim SS, Kim YC, Lee CD, Byurn HK, Kang HYEffects of Panax ginseng supplementation on muscle damage and inflammation after uphill treadmill running in humansAm J Chin Med.(2011)
- Blood glucose - Reay JL, Kennedy DO, Scholey ABSingle doses of Panax ginseng (G115) reduce blood glucose levels and improve cognitive performance during sustained mental activityJ Psychopharmacol.(2005 Jul)
- Blood glucose - Effects of Panax ginseng on hyperglycemia, hypertension, and hyperlipidemia: A systematic review and meta-analysis.()
- Insulin - Red ginseng for type 2 diabetes mellitus: a systematic review of randomized controlled trials.()
- Weight - Kim JY, Park JY, Kang HJ, Kim OY, Lee JHBeneficial effects of Korean red ginseng on lymphocyte DNA damage, antioxidant enzyme activity, and LDL oxidation in healthy participants: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trialNutr J.(2012 Jul 17)
- Cortisol - E. Azizi, F. MoradiThe effect of ginseng supplementation on anabolic index, muscle strength, body composition, and testosterone and cortisol response to acute resistance exercise in male bodybuildersDepartment of Physical Education and Sport Sciences.()
- Liver Enzymes - Meegun Hong, Yoon Hyeong Lee, Seungwoo Kim, Ki Tae Suk, Chang Seok Bang, Jai Hoon Yoon, Gwang Ho Baik, Dong Joon Kim, Myong Jo KimAnti-inflammatory and antifatigue effect of Korean Red Ginseng in patients with nonalcoholic fatty liver diseaseJ Ginseng Res.(2016 Jul)
- Oxidative Stress Biomarkers - Kim HG, Yoo SR, Park HJ, Lee NH, Shin JW, Sathyanath R, Cho JH, Son CGAntioxidant effects of Panax ginseng C.A. Meyer in healthy subjects: a randomized, placebo-controlled clinical trialFood Chem Toxicol.(2011 Sep)
- Blood glucose - Sutton EF, Beyl R, Early KS, Cefalu WT, Ravussin E, Peterson CMEarly Time-Restricted Feeding Improves Insulin Sensitivity, Blood Pressure, and Oxidative Stress Even without Weight Loss in Men with PrediabetesCell Metab.(2018 Jun 5)
- Blood glucose - B D Horne, J B Muhlestein, D L Lappé, H T May, J F Carlquist, O Galenko, K D Brunisholz, J L AndersonRandomized cross-over trial of short-term water-only fasting: metabolic and cardiovascular consequencesNutr Metab Cardiovasc Dis.(2013 Nov)
- Insulin - Carlson O, Martin B, Stote KS, Golden E, Maudsley S, Najjar SS, Ferrucci L, Ingram DK, Longo DL, Rumpler WV, Baer DJ, Egan J, Mattson MPImpact of reduced meal frequency without caloric restriction on glucose regulation in healthy, normal-weight middle-aged men and womenMetabolism.(2007 Dec)
- Weight - Stote KS, Baer DJ, Spears K, Paul DR, Harris GK, Rumpler WV, Strycula P, Najjar SS, Ferrucci L, Ingram DK, Longo DL, Mattson MPA controlled trial of reduced meal frequency without caloric restriction in healthy, normal-weight, middle-aged adultsAm J Clin Nutr.(2007 Apr)
- Blood glucose - Ji Eun Lee, Eunkyo Park, Jung Eun Lee, Joong Hyuck Auh, Hyung-Kyoon Choi, Jaehwi Lee, Soomuk Cho, Jung-Hyun KimEffects of a Rubus coreanus Miquel supplement on plasma antioxidant capacity in healthy Korean menNutr Res Pract.(2011 Oct)
- Blood glucose - Nieman DC, Cayea EJ, Austin MD, Henson DA, McAnulty SR, Jin FChia seed does not promote weight loss or alter disease risk factors in overweight adultsNutr Res.(2009 Jun)
- Blood glucose - Vuksan V, Jenkins AL, Dias AG, Lee AS, Jovanovski E, Rogovik AL, Hanna AReduction in postprandial glucose excursion and prolongation of satiety: possible explanation of the long-term effects of whole grain Salba (Salvia Hispanica L.)Eur J Clin Nutr.(2010 Apr)
- Blood glucose - Mohammad Hassan Sohouli, Somaye Fatahi, Abolfazl Lari, Mojtaba Lotfi, Maryam Seifishahpar, Mihnea-Alexandru Găman, Seyedeh Tayebeh Rahideh, Saud K AlBatati, Abdullah M AlHossan, Sara A Alkhalifa, Sara A Alomar, Ahmed Abu-ZaidThe effect of paleolithic diet on glucose metabolism and lipid profile among patients with metabolic disorders: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trialsCrit Rev Food Sci Nutr.(2021 Jan 25)
- Blood glucose - Eric W Manheimer, Esther J van Zuuren, Zbys Fedorowicz, Hanno PijlPaleolithic nutrition for metabolic syndrome: systematic review and meta-analysisAm J Clin Nutr.(2015 Oct)
- Blood glucose - Barbara Frączek, Aleksandra Pięta, Adrian Burda, Paulina Mazur-Kurach, Florentyna TyrałaPaleolithic Diet-Effect on the Health Status and Performance of Athletes?Nutrients.(2021 Mar 21)
- Weight - Ehsan Ghaedi, Mohammad Mohammadi, Hamed Mohammadi, Nahid Ramezani-Jolfaie, Janmohamad Malekzadeh, Mahdieh Hosseinzadeh, Amin Salehi-AbargoueiEffects of a Paleolithic Diet on Cardiovascular Disease Risk Factors: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled TrialsAdv Nutr.(2019 Jul 1)
- Blood glucose - Salbe AD, Johnston CS, Buyukbese MA, Tsitouras PD, Harman SMVinegar lacks antiglycemic action on enteral carbohydrate absorption in human subjectsNutr Res.(2009 Dec)
- Blood glucose - Johnston CS, Buller AJVinegar and peanut products as complementary foods to reduce postprandial glycemiaJ Am Diet Assoc.(2005 Dec)
- Weight - Khezri, S, et alBeneficial effects of Apple Cider Vinegar on weight management, Visceral Adiposity Index and lipid profile in overweight or obese subjects receiving restricted calorie diet: A randomized clinical trialJ. Funct. Foods.()
- High-density lipoprotein (HDL) - Oanetta, C. Jonk, Y, Shapiro, AProspective randomized clinical trial evaluating the impact of vinegar on lipids in non-diabeticsWorld J. Cardiovasc. Dis.()
- Blood glucose - Awad S, Fearon KC, Macdonald IA, Lobo DNA randomized cross-over study of the metabolic and hormonal responses following two preoperative conditioning drinksNutrition.(2011 Sep)
- Blood glucose - Tatiana Moro, Grant Tinsley, Antonino Bianco, Giuseppe Marcolin, Quirico Francesco Pacelli, Giuseppe Battaglia, Antonio Palma, Paulo Gentil, Marco Neri, Antonio PaoliEffects of eight weeks of time-restricted feeding (16/8) on basal metabolism, maximal strength, body composition, inflammation, and cardiovascular risk factors in resistance-trained malesJ Transl Med.(2016 Oct 13)
- Blood glucose - Szulinska M, Gibas-Dorna M, Miller-Kasprzak E, Suliburska J, Miczke A, Walczak-Gałezewska M, Stelmach-Mardas M, Walkowiak J, Bogdanski PSpirulina maxima improves insulin sensitivity, lipid profile, and total antioxidant status in obese patients with well-treated hypertension: a randomized double-blind placebo-controlled studyEur Rev Med Pharmacol Sci.(2017 May)
- Weight - Shariat A, Farhangi M, Zeinalian RSpirulina platensis supplementation, macrophage inhibitory cytokine-1 (MIC-1), oxidative stress markers and anthropometric features in obese individuals: A randomized controlled trialJ Herb Med.()
- Total Antioxidant Capacity (TAC) - Hee-Jung Park, Hyun-Sook LeeThe influence of obesity on the effects of spirulina supplementation in the human metabolic response of Korean elderlyNutr Res Pract.(2016 Aug)
- Total Antioxidant Capacity (TAC) - Radhey Shyam, Som N Singh, Praveen Vats, Vijay K Singh, Rajeev Bajaj, Shashi B Singh, Pratul K BanerjeeWheat grass supplementation decreases oxidative stress in healthy subjects: a comparative study with spirulinaJ Altern Complement Med.(2007 Oct)
- High-density lipoprotein (HDL) - Park HJ, Lee YJ, Ryu HK, Kim MH, Chung HW, Kim WYA randomized double-blind, placebo-controlled study to establish the effects of spirulina in elderly KoreansAnn Nutr Metab.(2008)
- Glycemic Control - Marcel AK, Ekali LG, Eugene S, Arnold OE, Sandrine ED, von der Weid D, Gbaguidi E, Ngogang J, Mbanya JCThe effect of Spirulina platensis versus soybean on insulin resistance in HIV-infected patients: a randomized pilot studyNutrients.(2011 Jul)
- Triglycerides - Patricia Victoria Torres-Durán, Aldo Ferreira-Hermosillo, Arnulfo Ramos-Jiménez, Rosa Patricia Hernández-Torres, Marco Antonio Juárez-OropezaEffect of Spirulina maxima on postprandial lipemia in young runners: a preliminary reportJ Med Food.(2012 Aug)
- Interleukin 6 - Sara Mohiti, Meysam Zarezadeh, Fatemeh Naeini, Helda Tutunchi, Alireza Ostadrahimi, Zohreh Ghoreishi, Mehrangiz Ebrahimi MamaghaniSpirulina supplementation and oxidative stress and pro-inflammatory biomarkers: A systematic review and meta-analysis of controlled clinical trialsClin Exp Pharmacol Physiol.(2021 Aug)
- Oxidative Stress Biomarkers - Kalafati M, Jamurtas AZ, Nikolaidis MG, Paschalis V, Theodorou AA, Sakellariou GK, Koutedakis Y, Kouretas DErgogenic and antioxidant effects of spirulina supplementation in humansMed Sci Sports Exerc.(2010 Jan)
- Blood glucose - Blakesmith SJ, Lyons-Wall PM, George C, Joannou GE, Petocz P, Samman SEffects of supplementation with purified red clover (Trifolium pratense) isoflavones on plasma lipids and insulin resistance in healthy premenopausal womenBr J Nutr.(2003 Apr)
- Glycemic Control - Lee CC, Bloem CJ, Kasa-Vubu JZ, Liang LJEffect of oral phytoestrogen on androgenicity and insulin sensitivity in postmenopausal womenDiabetes Obes Metab.(2012 Apr)
- Blood glucose - Z Jenko Pražnikar, S Kenig, T Vardjan, M Černelič Bizjak, A PetelinEffects of kefir or milk supplementation on zonulin in overweight subjectsJ Dairy Sci.(2020 May)
- Blood glucose - GÖLÜNÜK, S et alEffects of traditional fermented beverages on some blood parameters in aerobic exercises.Biomedical Research.()
- Blood glucose - Muhammad S Mansour, Yu-Ming Ni, Amy L Roberts, Michael Kelleman, Arindam Roychoudhury, Marie-Pierre St-OngeGinger consumption enhances the thermic effect of food and promotes feelings of satiety without affecting metabolic and hormonal parameters in overweight men: a pilot studyMetabolism.(2012 Oct)
- Blood glucose - Ghanim H, Sia CL, Abuaysheh S, Korzeniewski K, Patnaik P, Marumganti A, Chaudhuri A, Dandona PAn antiinflammatory and reactive oxygen species suppressive effects of an extract of Polygonum cuspidatum containing resveratrolJ Clin Endocrinol Metab.(2010 Sep)
- Blood glucose - Reidar J Pettersen, Mohamed Salem, Jon Skorve, Rune J Ulvik, Rolf K Berge, Jan Erik NordrehaugPharmacology and safety of tetradecylthioacetic acid (TTA): phase-1 studyJ Cardiovasc Pharmacol.(2008 Apr)
- Total cholesterol - Morken T, Bohov P, Skorve J, Ulvik R, Aukrust P, Berge RK, Livden JKAnti-inflammatory and hypolipidemic effects of the modified fatty acid tetradecylthioacetic acid in psoriasis--a pilot studyScand J Clin Lab Invest.(2011 Jul)
- Blood glucose - Gonzales-Arimborgo C, Yupanqui I, Montero E, Alarcón-Yaquetto DE, Zevallos-Concha A, Caballero L, Gasco M, Zhao J, Khan IA, Gonzales GFAcceptability, Safety, and Efficacy of Oral Administration of Extracts of Black or Red Maca (Lepidium meyenii) in Adult Human Subjects: A Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled StudyPharmaceuticals (Basel).(2016 Aug 18)
- Anxiety Symptoms - Brooks NA, Wilcox G, Walker KZ, Ashton JF, Cox MB, Stojanovska LBeneficial effects of Lepidium meyenii (Maca) on psychological symptoms and measures of sexual dysfunction in postmenopausal women are not related to estrogen or androgen contentMenopause.(2008 Nov-Dec)
- Blood glucose - Ngondi JL, Oben JE, Minka SRThe effect of Irvingia gabonensis seeds on body weight and blood lipids of obese subjects in CameroonLipids Health Dis.(2005 May 25)
- Blood glucose - Sureda A, Córdova A, Ferrer MD, Pérez G, Tur JA, Pons AL-citrulline-malate influence over branched chain amino acid utilization during exerciseEur J Appl Physiol.(2010 Sep)
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